Ci^^^^  -  '^'"^cer^^^. 


in  iM^mortam 

THE  REVEREND  ARTHUR  ROMEYN   GRAY,   D.D. 

Born  Bergen  Point,  New  Jersey,  December  30,  1875. 

Son  of  George  Zabriskie  and  Kate  Forrest  Gray. 

Died  in  New  York  Qty,  January  11,  1933. 

Educated  at  Groton  Academy,   Coltimbia   University,  and   Oxford. 

Ordained  Deacon,   1900,   and  Priest,   1901,   in   the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church. 

Professor  of  Apologetics,  1901-11,  the  University  of  the  South,  Sewanee, 
and  Chaplain,  1908-11. 

Developed  The  University  Press,  and  later  presented  it  to  the  University. 

Educational    Secretary    and    Latin-American    Secretary    of    Board    of 
Missions  of  the  Church,  1911-30. 

Member  of  staff  of  Cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  New  York,  1930-33. 

He  edited  and  published  the  Sewanee  Theological  Library,  as  follows: 
The  Doctrine  of  the  Church— By  Rt.  Rev.  Dr.  A.  C.  A.  Hall 
The  Book  of  Common  Prayer — by  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Hart 
Christian  Apologetics — By  Rev.  Dr.  Arthur  R.  Gray 
Manual  of  Early  Ecclesiastical  History — by  Rev.  Dr.  Charles  L.  WeUs 
Church  History,  Medieval  and  Modem — by  Rev.  Dr.  William  Lloyd 

Bevan 
The  Old  Testament— by  Rev.  Dr.  Loring  W.  Batten 

The   remaining   volumes   of   this   series   are   being   distributed   by   the 
University  of  the  South  through  the  generosity  of  Dr.   Gray's  family. 

August  1,  1953. 


■  • 


I 


MANUAL  OF 

EARLY  ECCLESIASTICAL 

HISTORY 


SEWANEE  THEOLOGICAL  LIBRARY 


GENERAL  EDITOR  — The  Rev.  Arthur  R.  Gray,  some- 
time Chaplain  of  the  University  of  the  South. 


THE  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  CHURCH,  by  the  Rt.  Rev. 
A.  C.  A.  Hall,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Bishop  of  Vermont 

"It  is  at  once  most  comprehensive  and  most  condensed;  and  its  dealing  witti  some 
of  the  difficult  and  important  questions  of  our  time,  such  as  the  Resurrection,  the  In- 
carnation, and  especially  the  Atonement,  is  a  remarkable  piece  of  clear  theological 
statement  and  logical  argument." — Rt.  Rev.  W.  C.  Doank. 

THE  BOOK  OF  COMMON  PRAYER,  by  the  Very  Rev. 
Samuel  Hart,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Dean  of  Berkeley  Divinity 
School. 

"It  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  uses  of  students  of  theology,  and  is,  beyond  com- 
parison, the  best  book  of  its  kind  for  the  reading  of  Churchmen  in  general." — Dr. 
George   Hodges,  Dean  of  the  Episcofal  Theological  School. 

APOLOGETICS,  by  the  General  Editor. 

"Distinctly  pragmatic,  but  also  thoroughly  theistic." — Dr.  W.  P.  DuBoSE. 

"This  volume  has  many  excellencies;  but  the  chief  of  them  is  its  masterly  exposure 
of  the  claims  of  Naturalism." — Princeton  Theological  Review. 

MANUAL  OF  EARLY  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY 
TO  476  A.D.,  by  the  Ver>'  Rev.  Chas.  L.  Wells,  Ph.D., 
Lecturer  in  History,  McGill  University,  Montreal ;  some- 
time Dean  of  Christ  Church  Cathedral,  New  Orleans. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY  from  476  a.d.,  by  the 
Rev.  Wilson  Lloyd  Bevan,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  History 
and  Economics,  University  of  the  South.    (In  Preparation.) 

THE  OLD  TESTAMENT,  by  the  Rev.  Loring  W. 
Batten,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  the  Literature  and 
Interpretation  of  the  Old  Testament,  General  Theological 
Seminary.     (In  Preparation.) 

THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.     (To  be  arranged  for.) 

ECCLESIASTICAL  POLITY,  by  the  Rev.  George  Wil- 
liam Douglas,  D.D.,  Canon  of  the  Cathedral  of  St.  John 
the  Divine,  New  York.     (In  Preparation.) 

CHRISTIAN  ETHICS.     (To  be  arranged  for.) 

»*»  In  uniform  volumes,  12-mo.  cloth,  printed  on  imported 
English  paper,  price  $IJ0  per  volume,  post  prepaid. 


THE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

of  SEWANEE  TENNESSEE 


<^OFPft/J^ 


-    iC^^i 


SEWANEE  THEOLOGICAL  LIBRARY 


MANUAL  OF 

EARLY  ECCLESIASTICAL 

HISTORY 

TO  476  A.  D. 
BY 

CHARLES  L.WELLS,  Ph.D. 

Lecturer  in  History,  McGill  University,  Montreal. 

Formerly  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History 

in  Seabury  Divinity  School,  Faribault,  Minn. 

Author  of  "  The  Age  of  Charlemagne.'' 


AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  THE  SOUTH 
SEWANEE,  TENNESSEE 


Copyright,  1912 

By  The  University  Press  of 

Sewanee  Tennessee 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 

THE  object  of  this  series  is  to  provide  for  the 
clergy  and  laity  of  the  Church  a  statement,  in 
convenient  form,  of  its  Doctrine,  Discipline  and 
Worship — as  well  as  to  meet  the  often  expressed  de- 
sire on  the  part  of  Examining  Chaplains  for  text- 
books which  they  could  recommend  to  candidates 
for  Holy  Orders. 

To  satisfy,  on  the  one  hand,  the  demand  of  general 
readers  among  the  clergy  and  laity,  the  books  have 
been  provided  with  numerous  references  to  larger 
works,  making  them  introductory  in  their  nature; 
and  on  the  other  hand,  to  make  them  valuable  for  use 
in  canonical  examinations,  they  have  been  arranged 
according  to  the  canons  of  the  Church  which  deal 
with  that  matter. 

It  is  the  earnest  hope  of  the  collaborators  in  this 
series  that  the  impartial  scholarship  and  unbiased  at- 
titude adopted  throughout  will  commend  themselves 
to  Churchmen  of  all  types,  and  that  the  books  will 
therefore  be  accorded  a  general  reception  and  adopted 
as  far  as  possible  as  a  fiorm  for  canonical  examina- 
tions.    The  need  of  such  a  norm  is  well  known  to  all. 

And  finally  a  word  to  Examining  Chaplains.  They 
will  find  that  the  volumes  are  so  arranged  that  it  will 


EDITORS  PREFACE 


be  possible  to  adapt  them  to  all  kinds  of  students. 
The  actual  text  itself  should  be  taken  as  the  minimum 
of  requirement  from  the  candidate,  and  then,  by 
reference  on  their  part  to  the  bibliographies  at  the 
end  of  each  chapter,  they  can  increase  as  they  see  fit 
the  amount  of  learning  to  be  demanded  in  each  case. 
It  has  been  the  endeavor  of  the  editor  to  make  these 
bibliographies  so  comprehensive  that  Examining 
Chaplains  will  always  find  suitable  parallel  readings. 
If  in  any  way  the  general  public  will  be  by  this 
series  encouraged  to  study  the  position  of  the 
Church,  and  if  the  canonical  examinations  in  the 
different  dioceses  can  be  brought  into  greater  har- 
mony one  with  another,  our  object  will  be  accom- 
plished. 

Arthur  R.  Gray. 


PREFACE 

THIS  little  book  falls  in  line  with  and  seeks  to 
carry  out  the  general  purpose  of  the  series. 
Its  special  aim  is  to  give  such  a  brief,  connected  yet 
sufficiently  analytical  account  of  the  history  as  to 
make  it  serve  alike  the  purpose  of  the  special  student 
and  of  the  intelligent  reader. 

While  the  effort  is  made  not  to  omit  any  facts  or 
names  or  topics  of  real  importance,  their  full  and 
complete  consideration  is  left  to  larger  works  to 
which  references  are  given.  Special  references  are 
given  at  the  end  of  each  section.  References  to  the 
bibliography  at  the  beginning  of  the  book  are,  in 
most  cases,  omitted,  as  the  indexes  to  each  volume 
will  supply  them.  A  few  occasional  references  on 
special  points  are  introduced  into  the  text  where  it 
is  deemed  advantageous. 

Detailed  chronological  divisions  of  the  period  are 
made,  sometimes  at  the  expense  of  the  continuity  of 
a  single  topic,  in  order  to  emphasize  and  make 
possible  a  definite  picture  of  each  step  in  the  develop- 
ment and  to  place  it  in  its  immediate  chronological 
environment,  that  the  events  of  the  period  may  be 
seen  in  close  relation  to  the  other  conditions  of  the 
time  in  which  they  belong. 


vi.  PREFACE 

The  placing  of  the  final  limit  of  the  early  period  at 
476  A.D.  needs  some  explanation  and  perhaps  justifi- 
cation. It  is  true  that  the  importance  of  that  year 
has  been  greatly  overestimated,  and  that  even  the 
significance  which  it  does  possess  was  not  recognized 
in  the  fifth  century,  but  it  coincides  with  so  many 
events  besides  that  of  the  accession  of  Odovaker  to 
the  throne  of  Italy  and  the  sending  of  the  imperial 
insignia  of  the  West  back  to  Constantinople,  that  it 
seems  right  to  adopt  it,  following  the  lead  of  the 
learned  Dr.  Hans  von  Schubert  in  his  exceedingly 
valuable  revision  of  Moeller's  Lehrbuch  der  Kirchen- 
geschichte. 

The  year  476  marks  the  end  of  the  close  connection 
between  the  East  and  the  West;  the  foundation  of 
the  Papacy  by  Leo  I ;  the  close  of  the  period  of  the 
first  four,  and  most  important,  General  Councils  by 
that  of  Chalcedon,  451  a.d.  The  next  events  in 
chronological  order  also  mark  the  beginning  of  a  new 
period;  the  beginning  of  the  great  Prankish  Power 
by  the  emergence  of  Clovis  and  his  baptism,  496  a.d., 
and  the  beginning  of  the  English  nation  by  the 
Anglo-Saxon  conquest  of  Britain,  begun  449  a.d.,  but 
not  completed  until  a  century  and  a  half  later. 

The  whole  period  has  been  subdivided  into  two 
periods,  and  these  again  into  five  divisions,  in  order 
to  fix  the  attention  on  definite  and  well-marked  stages 
in  the  development,  and  also  to  note  the  most  signifi- 


PREFACE  vii. 

cant  epochs  in  the  history.  It  must  be  understood, 
however,  that  the  floor  of  the  long  hall  of  history  is 
not  laid  in  boards  of  equal  length,  and  that  some 
movements  beginning  in  one  period  extend  into  a 
succeeding  one,  and  that  within  any  single  period 
there  is  a  progress  of  development.  With  this 
caution  the  divisions  will  be  found  helpful  alike  to 
the  memory  and  the  understanding. 

In  treating  the  various  periods  the  attempt  is  made 
to  give  the  latest  and  most  scholarly  opinion  and  view 
of  each  topic,  and  to  give  a  complete  list  of  the 
valuable  and  most  recent  contributions  accessible  to 
the  English  student,  though  it  has  not  been  possible 
nor  is  it  deemed  expedient  to  make  any  reference  to 
even  valuable  magazine  articles  or  reviews,  owing 
largely  to  space  and  time  limitations.  In  some  cases 
almost  direct  quotations  are  made  from  works 
mentioned  in  the  bibliographical  lists,  without  any 
further  acknowledgment. 

A  brief  characterization  of  the  nature  and  value  of 
the  works  has  been  attempted  as  a  guide,  but  such 
estimates  are  largely  personal  and  must  be  treated  as 
such.  Dates  are  given  whenever  possible  and  as 
accurately  as  possible  in  order  to  fix  the  chrono- 
logical relation  of  events,  although  early  dates  are 
uncertain  and  changes  are  being  made  continually. 
It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  date  of  a  man's  death 
is  much  more  important  than  that  of  his  birth,  as 


viii.  PREFACE 

serving  to  fix  more  nearly  the  period  of  his  largest 
activity. 

The  book  is  an  honest  and  conscientious  effort  to 
treat  a  subject,  filled  with  controversy  and  wide 
divergence  of  opinion,  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
scholar  rather  than  from  that  of  the  partisan;  but 
there  is  no  shrinking  from  stating  conclusions  or 
making  inferences  where  it  is  deemed  proper  and 
helpful. 

I  would  be  very  grateful  for  any  corrections  or 
suggestions  which  may  be  made.  The  writing  of  a 
book,  in  history  particularly,  is  a  cooperative,  not  an 
individual  act. 

C.  L.  W. 

Montreal,  March,  1912. 


ANALYTICAL  OUTLINE 

4   B.C.   TO   476   A.D. 

A.    FIRST  PERIOD 

The  Apostolic  and  the  Early  Catholic  Church  : 

From  the  Birth  of  Jesus  Christ  to  the 

Edict  of  Milan.    4  b.c.  to  313  a.d. 

Chapter  I.  First  Division.  Primitive  Christianity  : 
From  the  Birth  of  Jesus  Christ  to  the  Death 
OF  St.  John  and  the  Accession  of  the  Emperor 
Trajan.    4  B.C.  to  98  a.d. 

§1.   Introductory. —  Preparation  for  Christianity 3 

(i)   In  the  East 5 

(2)  In  the  Grseco-Roman  World 6 

(3)  In  Judaism 7 

(4)  The  Roman  Empire  at  the  Birth  of  Jesus 7 

§2.   Jesus  Christ  and  the  Origins  of  Christianity 10 

§3.   The  Church  in  Jerusalem 12 

§4.    St.  Paul  and  the  Gentile  Church 17 

§5.    St.  Peter  and  the  Roman  Church  19 

§6.   St.  James,  St.  John  and  the  other  Apostles 20 

§7.   Worship  and  Organization  22 

§8.   The  Spread  of  Christianity  and  Early  Persecutions. ...  30 

Chapter  II.  Second  Division.  The  Post-Apostolic 
Age  :  From  the  Accession  of  Trajan  to  the 
Death  of  Marcus  Aurelius.    98  a.d.  to  180  A'.d. 

§1.   The  Spread  of  Christianity 35 

§2.  The  Persecutions  under  "The  Good  Emperors" 38 


ANALYTICAL  OUTLINE 


§3.   The  Apostolic  Fathers 40 

§4.  The  Christian  Apologists 42 

§5.  Ebionism  and  the  Pseudo-Clementine  System 45 

§6.   Gnosticism 47 

§7.   Marcion  and  his  Churches 53 

§8.   Montanus  and  Montanism 56 

§9.  The  Consolidation  of  the  Catholic  Church 59 

§10.   The  Rule  of  Faith 63 

§11.  The  Canon  of  Scripture 65 

§12.  Baptism 67 

§13.  The  Eucharist 69 

§14.   Festivals  and  Holy  Days 70 

§15.   Christian  Life  and  Discipline 73 

§16,   The  Intellectual  Attack 76 

Chapter  III.  Third  Division.  The  Old  Catholic 
Age  :  From  the  Death  of  Marcus  Aurelius  to 
THE  Edict  of  Milan.    180  a.d.  to  313  a.d. 

§1.   The  Spread  of  Christianity 78 

§2.  The  Church  and  the  Empire  ;  The  Persecutions 79 

§3.   Theological  Schools  and  Tendencies 86 

§4.  The  Theology  of  the  Church 100 

§5.   The  Intellectual  Attack 112 

§6.   Mani  and  Manichasism 113 

§7.  The  Catholic  Church 117 

(i)  Organization ;  The  Hierarchy 117 

(2)  Synods 122 

(3)  The  Metropolitans 123 

(4)  The  Primacy  of  Rome  and  Ecclesiastical  Unity  125 

§8.   Baptism 131 

§9.  The  Eucharist  and  Christian  Worship 132 

§10.   Church  Buildings  and  the  Catacombs 136 

§11.   Christian  Life  and  Discipline 140 

§12.   Schisms 142 


ANALYTICAL  OUTLINE 


B.     SECOND  PERIOD 

The  Imperial  Church  and  the  First  Four  General 

Councils  :  From  the  Edict  of  Milan  to  the 

End  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  West. 

313  A.D.  to  476  a.d. 

Chapter  I.  First  Division.  The  Establishment  of 
the  Imperial  Church  and  the  Nicene  Faith  : 
From  the  Edict  of  Milan  to  the  Division  of 
THE  Empire  at  the  Death  of  Theodosius.    313 

A.D.  to  395  A.D. 

§1.  The  Empire  of  Constantine  and  his  Successors  in 
Relation  to  the  Christian  Church  and  the  Over- 
throw of  Paganism 145 

§2.   The  Intellectual  Attack  155 

§3.  The  Spread  of  Christianity 156 

§4.  The  Establishment  of  Christianity  among  the  Ger- 
mans, Ulfilas  and  the  Goths 158 

§5.   The  Clergy 163 

§6.  The  Patriarchal  Constitution 166 

§7.   The  Roman  Primacy 167 

§8.  Theological  Schools  and  Tendencies 172 

§9.  The  Trinitarian  Controversy  and  the  First  Two  Gen- 
eral Councils :  Nicasa,  325  a.d.,  and  Constantino- 
ple I,  3S1  A.D 177 

§10.   Apollinaris  and  the  Beginning  of  the  Christological 

Controversy 185 

§11.   Priscillianism  and  Heresy 186 

§12.    Monasticism  191 

§13.   Christian  Worship  and  Holy  Days 194 

§14.   Architecture 200 

§15.   Ecclesiastical  Law  and  Episcopal  Courts  202 


ANALYTICAL  OUTLINE 


Chapter  II.  Second  Division.  The  Final  Settle- 
ment OF  the  Nicene  Faith  and  the  Disintegra- 
tion OF  the  Imperial  Church  :  From  the  Death 
OF  Theodosius  to  the  End  of  the  Roman  Empire 
IN  the  West.    395  a.d.  to  476  a.d. 

\\.   The  End  of  Paganism  in  the  Empire 206 

( 1 )  In  the  East 206 

(2)  In  the  West 207 

§2.   The  Ecclesiastical  Organism 209 

§3.  The  Roman  Primacy  and  the  Origins  of  the  Papacy. .  211 

^4.  The  Invasion  of  the  Germans 216 

§5.   St.  Patrick  and  the  Islands  of  the  West 220 

\b.   Origenistic  Controversies 222 

§7.   Augustine  and  the  Theology  of  the  West 223 

^8.  The  Donatists 227 

§9.   The  Pelagian  Controversy  ;  Semi-Pelagianism 231 

\\Q.  The  Christological  Controversy 235 

(i)  The  Nestorian  Controversy  and  the  Third  Gen- 
eral Council  at  Ephesus,  431  a.d 235 

(2)  The    Eutychian   Controversy  and    the    Fourth 

General  Council  at  Chalcedon,  451  a.d ,  238 

^11.   The  Canon  of  Scripture 241 

\\z.  The  Sacraments 243 

^13.   Worship;   Rites  and  Ceremonies;   Services  and  Lit- 
urgies   249 

§14.   Saints,  Relics  and  Images 251 

§15.   Christian  Life  and  Discipline 255 


TABLE  OF   ROMAN    EMPERORS  AND  CON- 
TEMPORARY BISHOPS  OF  ROME 


(The  dates  assigned  to  the  bishops  of  the  first  two  centuries 
are  conjectural.) 


Augustus,  27  B.C.-14  A.D. 
Tiberius,  14-37 
Caius,  37-41 
Claudius,  41-54 
Nero,  54-68 
Galba,  68 
Otho,  69 
Vitellius,  69 
Vespasian,  69-79 
Titus,  79-81 


Domitian,  81-96 
Nerva,  96-98 
Trajan,  98-117 

Hadrian,  1 17-138 

Antoninus  Pius,  138-161 

Marcus  Aurelius,  161-180 
Commodus,  1S0-192 
Pertinax,  Didius  Julianus,  193 
Septimius  Severus,  193-2 11 
Geta  (d.  212),  and  Caracalla, 

211-217 
Macrinus,  217-218 
Heliogabalus,  218-222 

Alexander  Severus,  222-235 
Maximin,  235-238 


St.  Paul  and  St.  Peter  in  Rome. 


Linus,  67-79 

Anencletus,  Anacletus  or  Cletus, 

79-91 
Clement  I,  91-100 
Evaristus,  100-108 
Alexander,  108-117 
Xystus  or  Sixtus  I,  1 17-126 
Telesphorus,  126-137 
Hyginus,  137-141 
Pius  I,  141-154 
Anicetus,  154-166 
Soter,  166-174 
Eleutherus,  174-189 
Victor  I,  1S9-202 

Zephyrinus,  202-217 


Callistus  or  Calixtus  I,  217-222 
Urban  I,  222-230 
Pontianus,  230-235 


TABLE  OF  ROMAN  EMPERORS  AND 


Gordian,  I  and  II,  238 
Gordian  III,  238-244 
Philip  the  Arabian,  244-249 
Decius,  249-251 

C  Gallus,  251-254 
■I  Hostihan,  251-252 

[yEmilian,  253-254 

Valerian,  254-260 

Gallienus,  260-268 

Claudius  Gothicus,  268-270 

Aurelian,  270-275 

Tacitus,  275-276 

Florian,  276 

Probus,  276-282 

Carus,  282-283 

JNumerian,  283-284 

\Carinus,  283-285 

Diocletian,  284-286 

Diocletian  (E.);  Maximian 
(W.),  286-292 

Diocletian  (E.  Aug.);  Max- 
imian (W.  Aug.) 

Galerius  (E.  Css.)  ;  Con- 
stantius  (W.  Cces.) 

Galerius  (E.  Aug.)  ;  Con- 
stantius  (W.  Aug.) 

Maximin  (E.  Css.);  Severus 

(W.  CcES.) 

Severus  (W.,  d.  307) ;  Maxi- 
min (W.,  d.  310) 

Galerius  (E.,  d.  311);  Max- 
entius  (W.,  d.  312) 

Maximin  (E.,  d.  313)  ;  Con- 
stantine(W.) ;  Licinius(E.) 


Anterus,  235-236 

Fabian,  236-250 
See  vacant,  250-251 
Cornelius,  251-253 

Lucius,  253-254 
Stephen,  254-257 
Sixtus  II,  257-258 
See  vacant,  258-259 
Dionysius,  259-268 

Felix  I,  269-274 


Eutychianus,  275-283 


Gaius,  2S3-2C 


L  292-305 


Marcellinus,  296-304 


305-306 


See  vacant,  304-307 


Marcellus,  307-309 

>  306-313  Eusebius,  309 

See  vacant,  309-310 

Melchiades,  310-314 


CONTEMPORARY  BISHOPS  OF  ROME 


Licinius  (E.);  Constantine 

(W.),  313-323 
Constantine  (E.  and  W.), 

323-337 
Constantine  II,  Constans, 

Constantius,  337-340 
Constans,  Constantius,  340-350 
Constantius,  350-361 
Gallus  (W.  Css.),  350-354 
Julian  (W.  Css.),  354-361 
Julian,  361-363 
Jovian,  363 
Valens  (E.),  364-378 
Valentinian  I  (W.),  364-375 
Gratian  (W.),  375-383 
Maximus  (W.),  383-388 
Valentinian  II  (W.),  375-392 
Theodosius  (E.),  379-392 
Theodosius  (E.  and  W.), 

392-395 

East  West 

Arcadius,  395-408  Honorius,  395-423 
Theodosius  II, 
408-450 

Valentinian  111,423-455 

Marcian,  450-457  Maximus,  455-457 
Leo  I,  457-474       Majorian,  457-461 

Lybius  Severus, 
461-465 

Anthemius,  467-472 
Olybius,  472 
Julius  Nepos,  472-475 
Zeno,  474-491         Romulus  Augustulus, 
475-476 


Silvester,  314-33S 
Marcus,  336 

Julius  I,  337-352 


Liberius,  352-366 
Felix  II  (?),  355-365 


Damasus,  366-384 
Siricius,  384-398 


Anastasius  I,  398-402 
Innocent  I, 402-417 
Zosimus,  417-418 
Boniface  I,  418-422 
Ccelestine  1,422-432 
Sixtus  III,  432-440 

Leo  I,  440-461 

Hilary,  461-468 


Simplicius,  468-483 


LIST  OF  IMPORTANT  COUNCILS 
AND  SYNODS 


First  Period 


Date 

Second  Century 

c.  150-175 
c.  175-200 

Third  Century 

c.  218-222 
c.  230-235 

231 


Place 


Action 


Asia  Minor.      Against  Montanism. 
Rome.  The  date  of  Easter. 

Carthage.  Baptism  of  heretics  void.     Against 

the  Montanists. 
Iconium.  Baptism  by  heretics  void. 

Alexandria.      Against  Origen. 
Bostra.  Against  Beryllus  and  Patripassians. 

Carthage.  Priests  not  to  be  guardians. 

Carthage.  Restoration  of    lapsed.     Upholding 

Cyprian. 
Rome.  Excommunicated  Novatian. 

Carthage.  Restoration  of  lapsed  to  prepare  for 

battle.     Baptism  of  infants  not  to 

be  delayed  till  eighth  day. 
Three   synods   against  baptism   by 

heretics. 
Arsinoe.  Against  Nepos  and  the  Millenarians. 

Rome.  Against  Dionysius  of  Alexandria. 

Antioch.  Three  synods  against  Paul  of  Samo- 

sata  and  Sabellianism. 

Fourth    Century 

305  Cirta.  Traditores.  (Anecdote,  Hefele  I, p. 129) 

306  Alexandria.  Against  Meletius. 

306  Elvira.  Sin  after  baptism  ;  Sacrifice  to  idols  ; 

Clergy  in  business  and  marriage ; 
Fasting ;  Against  pictures  in 
churches  ;  Celebration  of  Pentecost ; 
Catechumenate  of  two  years ; 
Against  marrying  deceased  wife's 
sister ;  Against  actors  and  panto- 
mimes. 


244 
249 
251 

252 


255-256     Carthage. 


255-260 
262 
264,  5-9 


IMPORTANT  COUNCILS  AND  SYNODS 


Date  Place  Action 

Fourth  Century 

313  Rome.  Upheld  Cecilian.  Condemned  Donatus. 

Second  Period 

Imperial  Council.     Against  Donatists. 

Regulations  for  the  clergy. 

Age  for  ordination  of  a  presbyter,  30 
years. 
,    Condemned  Arius. 

The  First  General  Council. 

Deposed  Eustathius. 

Athanasius  refused  to  appear. 

Condemned  and  deposed  Athanasius. 

Condemned  Athanasius.     (Exiled  by 
the  Emperor.)    Deposed  Marcellus. 

Eusebian.    Deposed  Paul  of  Constan- 
tinople. 

Endorsed  Athanasius. 

Deposed  Athanasius. 

Upheld  Athanasius  and  Marcellus. 
"Council  of  the  Dedication."  Twenty- 
five  canons,  four  compromise 
creeds.  Eusebian ;  avoided  Arian 
and  Nicene  extremes ;  condemned 
Athanasius  and  Marcellus. 

Nicene.    Twenty-one  canons. 

Eusebian. 

Condemned   Photinus.     The  "  Prolix 

Exposition." 
Condemned  Photinus. 
Eusebian.        Homoousios       rejected. 

Accepted  fourth  Antiochian  creed. 

Deposed  Photinus  and  Marcellus. 
Condemned  Athanasius,  and  banished 

those  who  refused  to  subscribe. 
Condemned  Athanasius,  and  banished 

those  who  refused  to  subscribe. 


314 
314 
314-325 

320 
325 
330 
334 
335 
335 

c-  338-339 

339 
340 
341 
341 


Aries. 
Ancyra. 

Neo-Cassa- 

rea. 
Alexandria 

NlC^A. 

Antioch. 

Caesarea. 

Tyre. 

Constanti- 
nople. 

Constanti- 
nople. 
Alexandria. 
Antioch. 
Rome. 
Antioch. 


343 

Sardica. 

Philip- 

popolis. 

344 

Antioch. 

345 

Milan. 

351 

Sirmium  I 

353 

Aries. 

355 

Milan. 

xviii.      IMPORTANT  COUNCILS  AND  SYNODS 


Date 

Place 

Fourth  Centur 

y 

356 

Biten-ae. 

357 

Sirmium  II. 

358 

Antioch. 

358 

Ancyra. 

358 

Sirmium 

III. 

359 

Sirmium  IV. 

359 

Nice  (not 

Nic£ea). 

359 

Rimini. 

359 

Seleucia. 

360 

Constanti- 

nople. 

361 

Paris. 

362 

Alexandria. 

363 

Alexandria. 

363 

Antioch. 

c.  360-370 

Gangra. 

c.  370-380 

Laodicea. 

374 

Valence. 

375 

Illyria. 

375 

Ancyra. 

376 

Iconium. 

378 

Antioch. 

Milan. 

380 

Rome. 

380 

Saragossa. 

381 

Constan- 

tinople. 

381 

Aquileia. 

Milan. 

382 

Constanti- 

nople. 

Rome. 

Action 

Condemned  Athanasius. 
Anomoean.  "  Blasphemy  of  Sirmium." 
Extreme  Arian.    Anomoean. 
Semi-Arian.    Condemned  Anomoeans. 
Semi-Arian  ;  like  Sirmium  I. 

Dated  Creed.     Homoean. 
Homoean  Creed. 

Adopted  Arian  Creed  of  Nice. 

Homoean. 

Ulfilas  present.  Adopted  Creed  of 
Nice.     Deposed  Semi-Arians. 

Upheld  Homoousios  and  the  Nicene 
Creed. 

Attempt  to  win  back  the  Meletians 
and  to  establish  harmony. 

Declared  the  Nicene  faith. 

Meletians  accepted  the  Nicene  Creed. 

Discipline.     Asceticism. 

Regulation  of  the  Canon.     Discipline. 

Discipline. 

Against  Pneumatomachians. 

Arian  ;  deposed  Gregory  of  Nyssa. 

Nicene.     Upheld  Basil. 

Homoiousios. 

Approved  Nicene  faith. 

Condemned  Apollinaris  and  con- 
firmed Damasus. 

Against  the  Priscillianists. 

The  Second  General  Council. 

Against  Arians,  Meletians  and  Apol- 

linarians. 
Emphatic  assertion  of  the  Trinity  and 

the  Incarnation. 
Condemned  Apollinarians. 


IMPORTANT  COUNCILS  AND  SYNODS        xix. 


Date 

Fourth  Century 


384 
385 
386 

390 

393 
393-424 


394 


Place 

Constanti- 
nople. 

Bordeaux. 

Treves. 

Rome. 

Rome. 

Milan. 

Hippo. 

Carthage. 


Nimes. 


394 

Constanti- 

nople. 

397 

Carthage. 

399 

Alexandria. 

Jerusalem. 

Cyprus. 

400 

Toledo. 

Fifth  Century 

402 

Mileve. 

402 

Rome. 

403 

Chalcedon. 

404 

Constanti- 

nople. 

411 

Carthage. 

411 

Carthage. 

415 

Jerusalem. 

Diospolis. 

416 

Carthage. 

Mileve. 

Action 

Each  party  presented  a  creed.  All 
except  the  Nicene  destroyed  by 
Theodosius. 

Against  the  Priscillianists. 

Upheld  Ithacius. 

Discipline. 

Against  Jovinian,  who  opposed  ascet- 
icism. 

Regulation  of  the  Canon.     Discipline. 

Twenty  synods  under  Aurelius.  Num- 
bered consecutively.  Discipline.  Im- 
portant. Sunday,  actors  and  pagan 
banquets. 

Against  the  Priscillianists.  Concern- 
ing slavery. 

A  bishop  can  be  deposed  only  by  a 
greater  synod. 

Confirmed  the  decisions  of  Hippo. 

Against  Origen. 


Against  the  Priscillianists.   Discipline. 

Discipline. 

Celibacy  of  the  higher  clergy.  In- 
structions to  the  Galilean  bishops. 

Ad  Quercum.  (Estate  of  the  Imperial 
Prefect  Rufinus.)  Against  Chrysos- 
tom. 

Against  Chrysostom. 

Conference  of  Donatists  and  Catholics. 
Condemned  Caelestius. 
Refused  to  condemn  Pelagius. 

Condemned  Pelagius  and  appealed 
to  Innocent  I. 


IMPORTANT  COUNCILS  AND  SYNODS 


Date 

Place 

^fth  Century 

417 

Rome. 

418 

Carthage. 

419 

Carthage. 

420 

Seleucia. 

426 

Constanti- 

nople. 

429 

Troyes. 

430 

Rome. 

Alexandria, 

431 

Ephesus. 

431 

Constanti- 

nople. 

Tarsus. 

Antioch. 

432 

Constanti- 

nople. 

Antioch. 

433 

Antioch. 

434 

Antioch. 

439 

Riez. 

441 


Orange. 


442  Vaison. 

443°'' 452  Aries  II. 


444  Rome. 

446  Astorga. 

447  Toledo. 


447 


St.  Albans. 


Action 

Refused  to  condemn  Pelagius. 
Condemned  Pelagianism.    Forbade 

appeals  to  Rome. 
Led  to  collection  of  Canons. 
Led  to  collection  of  Canons  still  in 

use  in  the  East. 
Against  the  Euchites. 

Against  Pelagianism.    Sent  Bishop 
Germanus  and  Lupus  to  Britain. 
Against  Nestorius. 

The  Third  General  Council. 
Echoes  of  Ephesus. 


Attempts  at  reconciliation  between 
Cyril  and  John  of  Antioch. 

Attempt  at  reconciliation. 

Defended  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia. 

Uncanonical  ordinations.  "When 
times  are  peaceable,"  two  synods 
annually. 

Penitential  discipline.  Regulations 
for  clergy  and  widows. 

Regulation  for  clergy  and  bequests. 

Several  Provinces.  Previous  Can- 
ons confirmed.  Regulations  for 
clergy,  synods  and  penitents. 

Against  the  Priscillianists. 

Against  the  Priscillianists. 

Against  the  Priscillianists.  Affirmed 
Xhtjilioque,  following  a  statement 
by  Leo  I. 

Against  Pelagianism. 


IMPORTANT  COUNCILS  AND  SYNODS       xxi. 


Date 

Place 

Fifth  Century 

447 

Rome. 

448 

Antioch. 

448 

Constanti- 

nople. 

449 

Ephesus. 

449 

Rome. 

c.  450-456 

Ireland. 

451 

Milan. 

451 

Chalcedon 

453 

Constanti- 

nople. 

453 

Angers. 

458 

Rome. 

461 


Tours. 


464 

Aries. 

464 

Tarragona. 

465 

Rome. 

471 

Antioch. 

472 

Bourges. 

c.  472 

Vienne. 

c.  475 

Aries  and 

Lyons. 

Actio  ft 

Against       bishops       squandering 

Church  property. 
Accusers  of  Ibas  excommunicated. 
Excommunicated  Eutyches. 

Latrocinium.  "Synod  of  Brigands." 

Rejected  the  Synod  of  Brigands. 

Regulations  for  clergy,  and  disci- 
pline. 

Endorsed  Leo's  letter  to  Flavian. 

The  Fourth  General  Council. 

Accepted  Leo's  letter,  except  pro- 
test against  Canon  28  of  Chalce- 
don. 

Regulations  for  clergy,  monks  and 
penitents. 

Baptism  of  those  taken  captive  in 
childhood.  Baptism  by  heretics 
valid. 

Regulations  for  clergy,  and  disci- 
pline. 

Discipline. 

Appealed  to  Pope  Hilary. 

Discipline  ;  answer  to  Spain. 

Deposed  Peter  the  Fuller,  the 
Monophysite  patriarch  of  An- 
tioch. 

Election  of  a  Metropolitan. 

Endorsed  processional  litanies. 

Semi-Pelagian  victory.    Con- 
demned  the   Predestinarians. 


See  Hefele,  C.  J.,  History  of  the  Councils  of  the  Church. 
Translated.  Alphabetical  list  of  Synods.  Vol.  V,  pp.  452-462. 
Edinb.,  1895. 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

I.  Atlases  and  Chronologies 

Labberton,  R.  H. — New  Historical  Atlas  and  General  History. 

N.  Y.,  1890. 
Koeppen,  A.   L. — The  World  in  the   Middle  Ages.    2  vols. 

N.  Y.,  1854. 
Dow,  E.  W. — Atlas  of  European  History.     N.  Y.,  1907. 
Tamer,  G.  E. —  Concise  Tabular  View  of  the  Outlines  of  Chris- 
tian History.     Lond.,  1890. 
Heussi,  K.,  and  Mulert,  H. — Atlas  zur  Kirchengeschichte.    66 

maps,  8vo.    Tubingen,  1905.    The  best  small  modem  atlas. 
Wiltsch,  J.  E.  F. — Handbook  of  the  Geography  and  Statistics 

of  the  Church.     Trans.,  2  vols.     Lond.,  1859.     Useful. 

II.  Dictionaries  and  Encyclopedias 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica.    Eleventh  edition. — Articles  by  Har- 

nack,  Duchesne  and  others. 
Cheyne  and   Black. — Encyclopaedia   Biblica.     4  vols.     N.   Y., 

1 899-1 903.     Largely  by  German  scholars  with  reference  to 

German  books.     Critical,  scholarly,  and  rationalistic. 
Hastings,  James. —  Dictionary  of   Christ  and  the  Gospels.     2 

vols.     N.  Y.,  1906-1908. 
Hastings,    James. — Encyclopaedia    of    Religion    and    Ethics. 

To  be  completed  in  12  vols.     N.  Y.,  1908  £f. 
Hastings,  James. —  Dictionary  of  the   Bible.     5  vols.     N.  Y., 

1 898-1 904.      Critical    and    scholarly.     Mostly   by    English 

and  American  scholars. 
Smith  and  Wace. — Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography,  Litera- 
ture, Sects  and  Doctrines.     To  the  age  of   Charlemagne. 

4  vols.     Boston,  1877-1887. 
Smith  and   Cheetham. — Dictionary   of    Christian   Antiquities. 

To  the  time  of  Charlemagne.     2  vols.    Boston,  1875-1880. 
The  two  dictionaries  mentioned  above  contain  valuable 

and  scholarly  monographs  by  the  best  English  scholars. 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


The  New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopaedia  of  Religious  Knowl- 
edge.— Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson,  based  on  the  famous 
German  work  by  Hauck-Herzog.  To  be  completed  in 
12  vols.     N.  Y.,  1908  ff. 

Bingham,  J. —  Christian  Antiquities.  2  vols.  Still  of  much 
value. 

Blunt,  J.  H. — Dictionary  of  Doctrinal  and  Historical  Theology. 
2d  ed.    Phil.,  1891. 

Blunt,  J.  H. — Dictionary  of  Sects,  Heresies,  Ecclesiastical 
Parties  and  Schools  of  Religious  Thought.  2d  ed.  Phil., 
1886.     Two  works  for  handy  reference. 

Jackson,  S.  M. — Concise  Dictionary  of  Religious  Knowledge 
and  Gazetteer.    N.  Y.,  1893. 

Lamed,  J.  N. — History  for  Ready  Reference.  7  vols.  Spring- 
field, 191 1. 

The  last  two  volumes  are  supplementary,  dealing  with 
modern  history  from  1S94  to  191 1. 

Wright  and  Neill. — A  Protestant  Dictionary  of  the  History, 
Doctrines  and  Practices  of  the  Christian  Church.  Lond., 
1904. 

The  Catholic  Encyclopaedia. — To  be  completed  in  15  vols.  N. 
Y.,  1907  ff. 

The  Jewish  Encyclopaedia. — 12  vols.     N.  Y.,  1902-1905. 

III.    General  Church  Histories,  Covering 
Several  Periods 

Mosheim,  John  Laurence  von. —  (a)  Institutions  of  Christian 
History' ;  (b)  Historical  Commentaries  on  the  First  Three 
Centuries  to  350  a.d.  Written  in  Latin,  1750.  Translated 
and  edited  by  James  Murdock.     N.  Y.,  1874. 

Mosheim  is  the  founder  of  modern  scientific  Church 
history.  Though  his  work  is  now  generally  superseded,  it 
is  the  work  of  a  thorough,  conscientious  scholar.  It  is 
arranged  in  the  Centurial  form  and  lacks  philosophical 
insight. 

Neander,  J.  A.  W.— General  History  of  the  Christian  Religion 
and  Church  to  1430  a.d.     12th  ed.    6  vols.    Boston,  1881. 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


"A  giant  in  learning  and  a  saint  in  piety."  His  work 
shows  profound  learning  and  a  deep  devotional  spirit.  It 
was  completed  in  1852,  and  lacks  the  results  of  modern 
scholarship.  But  it  is  especially  strong,  and  still  very 
valuable  in  all  that  concerns  theology,  the  spiritual  life,  bi- 
ography and  analysis  of  character.  Little  attention  is  paid 
to  matters  affecting  external  order,  organization  and 
political  relations  ;  but  everything  connected  with  the  inner 
spiritual  history  of  the  Church  is  clearly  and  exhaustively 
portrayed.  His  purpose  is  "  to  exhibit  the  history  of  the 
Church  of  Christ  as  a  living  witness  of  the  divine  power  of 
Christianity  ;  as  a  school  of  Christian  experience." 

Gieseler,  J.  C.  L. — A  Textbook  of  Church  History,  to  1648  A.D., 
continued  to  1848  a.d.  by  Redepenning  after  Gieseler's  death 
in  1854.     5  vols.     N.  Y.,  1876-1880. 

A  very  learned  and  most  valuable  work  for  the  scholar. 
The  text  is  brief,  concise,  clear  and  accurate.  The  larger 
part  of  each  page  is  filled  with  notes  and  references,  with 
long  and  important  extracts  from  the  sources  which  are  not 
translated.     The  work  is  a  library  in  itself. 

Milman,  Dean  H.  H. —  (a)  History  of  Christianity  from  the 
Birth  of  Christ  to  the  Abolition  of  Paganism  in  the  Roman 
Empire  (about  400  a.d).  3  vols,  (sometimes  bound  in  two). 
New  and  revised  edition.     N.  Y.,  1871. 

Milman,  Dean  H.  H. —  (b)  History  of  Latin  Christianity  to  the 
Pontificate  of  Nicholas  V.  (1454  a.d.).  New  edition,  9 
vols.     Lond.,  1883. 

These  two  works  form  a  complete  and  connected  history, 
though  the  first  is  somewhat  inferior  to  the  second.  His 
work  on  the  Middle  Ages  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  in 
history,  though  lacking  the  results  of  modern  scholarship. 
Yet  it  ranks  next  to  Gibbon  as  a  classic  on  the  period,  and 
is  especially  valuable  on  the  Papacy,  Monasticism  and 
topics  connected  with  literature  and  art.  His  treatment 
is  impartial  yet  sympathetic,  scholarly,  and  has  a  grace- 
ful, brilliant,  literary  style. 

Gibbon,  E. — The  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  to  1461  a.d.    Best  edition  by  J.  B.  Bury.    7  vols. 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Lond.,  1896.  Called  the  greatest  historical  work  ever  pro- 
duced. It  was  written  in  1766-17S8.  Indispensable  for  a 
study  of  early  and  mediaeval  history.  Bury's  notes  are 
valuable  additions,  and  correct  misstatements  by  the  results 
of  the  latest  scholarship.     An  unrivalled  authority. 

Schaff,  Philip. — History  of  the  Christian  Church.  To  the  end 
of  the  Swiss  Reformation,  including  Calvin.  7  vols.  N.  Y. 
Latest  and  most  valuable  history  of  the  Church.  The 
first  volume  contains  a  valuable  essay  on  Church  History, 
with  a  full,  critical  and  descriptive  account  of  the  literature 
on  the  subject.  (Cf.  three  introductory  lectures  in  Stan- 
ley's History  of  the  Eastern  Church  ;  Bunsen's  God  in  His- 
tory ;  and  for  later  views  and  literature.  Flick's  The  Rise 
of  the  Mediaeval  Church,  Chapters  I  and  II.)  His  work 
excels  in  general  arrangement,  grouping  and  proportionate 
use  of  historical  material,  and  is  pervaded  by  a  high  literary 
and  religious  spirit.  Each  section  or  group  of  sections  be- 
gins with  a  list  of  special  literature  on  the  subject,  generally 
with  a  note  indicating  the  character  or  value  of  each. 
Schaff  is  an  impartial,  broad-minded,  conscientious  scholar. 
His  work  is  based  upon  an  independent  use  of  the  sources. 
He  shows  wide  reading  of  the  latest  English  and  American, 
as  well  as  French  and  German,  writers.  His  work  ceased 
with  his  death  in  1893.  Vol.  V,  on  the  period  just  pre- 
ceding the  Reformation,  is  by  his  son,  David  S.  Schaff. 

Robertson,  Canon  J.  C. — History  of  the  Christian  Church,  to 
1517  A.D.  8  vols.  Revised  edition.  Lond.,  1S74.  A  scholarly 
work  from  the  sources  in  a  moderate  and  candid  spirit. 
Not  profound  nor  technical  but  popular,  reliable  and  helpful. 

Sheldon,  H.  C. — History  of  the  Christian  Church.  5  vols. 
N.  Y.,  1894.  By  a  professor  in  the  Boston  University. 
Methodist. 

Hurst,  J.  P. — History  of  the  Christian  Church.  2  vols.  N.  Y., 
1897.     Methodist. 

Newman,  A.  H. — Manual  of  Church  History.  2  vols.  Phil., 
1900.     Baptist. 

These  are  three  of  the  latest  general  histories  written  from 
a  denominational  standpoint,  but  with  profound  modern 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


critical  scholarship,  in  a  broad  and  liberal  spirit  and  with 
continual  use  of,  and  reference  to,  the  latest  literature  on 
the  subject.  The  biographical  notes  and  introductory  lec- 
ture on  Church  History  in  Hurst  are  particularly  valuable. 

Fisher,  G.  P. — History  of  the  Christian  Church,  i  vol.,  N.  Y., 
1887.  Written  by  a  CongregationaUst  and  therefore,  like 
the  preceding,  lacking  in  adequate  treatment  of  the  early 
organization  of  the  Church  ;  yet  it  is  one  of  the  best  brief 
histories  ;  written  in  the  author's  well-known  scholarly  and 
historical  spirit.  Readable  and  comprehensive.  Maps 
and  an  appendix  on  the  literature  of  the  subject,  with 
comments,  add  much  to  its  value. 

Gardner,  Wm.  E. — History  of  Christianity  for  Sunday  Schools, 
N.  Y.,  1902.     Excellent  Uttle  manual. 

Jennings,  A.  C— Manual  of  Church  History.  2  vols.  N.  Y., 
1887-1888.  By  an  English  Churchman.  Compact,  useful 
and  comprehensive,  but  unfortunate  in  following  the 
arrangement  by  centuries. 

Alzog,  J. — Manual  of  Universal  Church  History.  Trans.  3  vols. 
Cincinnati,  1874-1878.  One  of  the  best  and  most  useful  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  works  on  general  Church  history. 
Alzog  held  a  high  place  as  a  scholar  and  a  Churchman. 
The  work  is  liberal  in  tone  and  remarkably  free  from 
prejudice,  and  shows  the  Roman  Catholic  point  of  view  in 
the  most  favorable  light.  The  translation  is  from  the  9th 
German  edition  (a  loth  appeared  in  1882),  but  the  trans- 
lators have  made  a  number  of  changes,  omissions  and  addi- 
tions in  an  ultramontane  spirit. 

Kurtz,  J.  H.— Church  History.  Translation  from  the  9th  and  loth 
German  editions.  3  vols.  N.  Y.,  1890.  Most  admirably 
arranged  for  a  textbook  and  has  been  widely  used  as  such 
in  both  languages.  Full  and  comprehensive  treatment, 
scholarly  and  devout.  His  Lutheran  prejudice  is  seen  in 
his  treatment  of  the  Organization,  Sacraments  and  Papacy, 
but  his  book  is  exceedingly  useful  for  concise  reference. 

Moeller,  Wilhelm.—  History  of  the  Christian  Church.  Trans. 
3  vols.  N.  Y.,  1892.  This  is  the  latest  and  best  of  the  Ger- 
man textbooks  accessible  to  the  English  reader,  embody- 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


ing  the  results  of  the  latest  scholarship  in  an  admirable 
arrangement.  The  translation  is  not  particularly  well  done, 
and  since  it  appeared  a  new  edition  in  the  German,  revised 
by  Hans  von  Schubert,  is  of  much  greater  value,  both  by 
arrangement  and  by  scholarship 

Cheetham  and  Hardwick. — A  History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
4  vols.  Lond.,  1877-1907.  The  well  known  and  highly 
prized  works  of  Hardwick  on  the  Middle  Ages  and  the 
Reformation  have  been  supplemented  by  Canon  Cheetham 
with  a  volume  on  the  Church  history  of  the  first  six  centu- 
ries, and  another  on  the  history  since  the  Reformation  to 
the  present  time.  Making  a  complete  and  exceedingly 
valuable  history  of  the  Church  in  four  volumes.  The 
method  is  most  helpful ;  the  material  comprehensive  and 
well  arranged,  clearly  and  logically  presented,  with  very  full 
notes  and  references  to  the  sources  and  latest  authorities. 
The  most  serviceable,  reliable  and  complete  of  the  shorter 
histories. 

Schubert,  Hans  von. — Outlines  of  Church  History.  Trans. 
N.  Y.,  1907.  A  valuable  book  by  the  learned  editor  of 
Moeller's  Lehrbuch  der  Kirchengeschichte. 

Robertson,  J.  M. — Short  History  of  Christianity.  Lond.,  1902. 
A  sociological  interpretation.     Critical  and  rationalistic. 

Crooks,  G.  R. — Story  of  the  Christian  Church.  N.  Y.,  1897. 
By  a  professor  in  the  Drew  Theological  Seminary.  Meth- 
odist. 

Zenos,  A.  C. — Compendium  of  Church  History.  Phil.,  1906. 
Congregationalist  professor  in  Hartford  Theological  Semi- 
nary. 

Brueck,  H. — History  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Trans.  2  vols., 
2nd  ed.     N.  Y.,  1889. 

Gilmartin,  T. — Manual  of  Church  History.  2  vols.  Dublin, 
1892.    Vol.  I,  2nd  ed.,  1893. 

Birkhauser,  J.  A. — History  of  the  Church.     7th  ed.  N.  Y.,  1903. 

Funk,  F.  X. — Manual  of  Church  History.  Trans.  Lond.,  1910. 
The  last  four  are  recent  Roman  Catholic  Manuals  of 
Church  History,  of  which  that  of  Prof.  Funk  of  Tubingen  is 
the  latest  and  best. 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Ten  Epochs  of  Church  History. — Edited  by  John  Fulton.  lo 
vols..    N.  Y.,  1896-1899. 

The  Church  Universal. — Edited  by  W.  H.  Hutton.  To  be 
completed  in  8  vols.     N.  Y.,  1905  ff. 

Epochs  of  Church  History. — Edited  by  Mandell  Creighton. 
N.  Y.,  188S  ff. 

The  Church,  Past  and  Present. — Edited  by  H.  M.  Gwatkin. 
N.  Y.,  1900  if. 

The  last  four  are  series  of  books  which  aim  to  cover  the 
general  history  of  the  Church.  Many  of  the  volumes  are 
of  special  value.  The  first  two  series  are  the  most  com- 
plete. 

This  list  would  not  be  complete  without  two  books  which 
might  well  serve  as  companions  to  any  of  the  above,  and 
which  have  a  distinct  and  special  value  of  their  own  : 

Allen,  A.  V.  G. — The  Continuity  of  Christian  Thought.  Boston, 
1884.  This  work  gives  in  a  single  volume  a  most  suggestive 
and  thoughtful  outline  and  interpretation  of  the  theology  of 
the  Church  in  its  greatest  men,  institutions  and  phases, 
throughout  the  whole  course  of  Church  history. 

Sohm,  Rudolf. — Outlines  of  Church  History.  Trans.  N.  Y.,  1904. 
This  is  a  remarkably  clear  and  able  presentation  of  the 
whole  life  and  development  of  the  Church  in  its  largest 
aspect  and  in  its  widest  and  most  essential  relations.  It 
gives  the  pith  and  meaning  of  the  Church's  history  and  is 
the  best  philosophy  of  Church  history  yet  written.  Admir- 
able for  review,  but  necessitates  a  previous  knowledge  of 
the  subject. 

IV.  Special  Histories  Dealing  with  the  Early 
Periods  of  Church  History 

Adeney,  W.  F. — The  Greek  and  the  Eastern  Churches.     N.  Y., 

1908. 
Backhouse,  E.,  and  Tylor,  C. — Early  Church  History  to  Death  of 

Constantine.    3d  ed.     Lond.,  1892. 

— Witnesses  for  Christ,  4th  to  13th  Century. — Sequel  to  the 

above  by  an  English  Quaker.    2  vols.    Lond.,  18S7.    Valua- 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


ble  illustrations  and  extracts.  Interesting  on  account  of 
the  point  of  view. 

Bartlett,  J.  V. — Early  Church  History.  The  first  four  centuries. 
Lond.,  1899. 

Bartlett,  J.  V.— The  Apostolic  Age.     N.  Y.,  1899. 

Bate,  H.  N. — History  of  the  Church  to  a.d.  325.  Oxford 
Church  Textbooks.     N.  Y.,  190S.     Brief  and  scholarly. 

Baur,  F.  C. — The  Church  History  of  the  First  Three  Centuries. 
Trans.  2  vols.  Lond.,  1878.  Theological  Trans.  Fund 
Lib.  This  is  the  first  part  (all  that  was  translated)  of  the 
author's  larger  work  in  five  volumes.  It  is  a  work  of  pro- 
found scholarship  and  brilliant  suggestion,  but  in  spite  of 
his  keen  insight  and  great  learning,  which  have  rendered 
much  service  to  later  students,  his  conclusions,  owing  to  pre- 
conceived theories,  have  not  been  sustained  by  the  investi- 
gations which  his  labors  have  stimulated. 

Bigg,  Charles. — Origins  of  Christianity,  to  the  Time  of  Con- 
stantine.     Oxford,  1909. 

Bright,  Wm. — A  collection  of  works  on  early  Church  history : 

(a)  Waymarks  in  Church  History.     Lond.,  1894. 

(b)  The  Roman  See  in  the  Early  Church.     Lond.,  1898. 

(c)  Some  Aspects  of  Primitive  Church  Life.     Lond.,  1898. 

(d)  Lessons  from   the    Lives    of    Three   Great   Fathers : 

Athanasius,  Chrysostom  and  Augustine.    Lond.,  1890. 

(e)  History  of  the  Church  from  Milan  to  Chalcedon.     313 

A.D.  to  451  A.D.     2nd  ed.     Oxford,  1869. 

(f)  The  Age  of  the  Fathers.     2  vols.     Lond.,  1903.    This 

is  also  a  history  from  313  a.d.  to  451  A.D.,  but  the 
treatment  is  different.  More  popular,  but  shows  later 
scholarship. 

(g)  Notes  on  the  Canons  of  the  First  Four  General  Coun- 

cils.    Lond.,  1882. 

Burkitt,  F.  C. — Early  Christianity  Outside  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire.    Camb.,  1899. 

Cheetham,  S. — History  of  the  Christian  Church  during  the  First 
Six  Centuries.  Lond.,  1905.  The  most  comprehensive  and 
complete  recent  single  volume  on  the  period. 

3 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Croke,  A.  D. — History  of  the  Church  under  the  Roman  Em- 
pire (to  476).     Lond.,  1873. 

Von  DolHnger,  J.  J.  T.— Manual  of  Church  History.  Trans. 
4  vols.     Lond.,  1842. 

Duchesne.  L. — Early  History  of  the  Christian  Church  to  the 
End  of  the  Third  Century.  Trans,  from  the  4th  ed.  N.  Y., 
1909.  An  exceedingly  valuable  presentation  of  the  subject 
by  a  liberal  and  learned  French  Roman  Catholic.  One  of 
the  latest  and  best  authorities  on  the  subject.  The  French 
work  is  in  three  volumes  and  extends  to  the  end  of  the  fifth 
century. 

Durell,  J.  C.  V. — The  Historic  Church.  Camb.,  1906.  Based 
on  a  careful  study  of  the  Early  Fathers. 

Eusebius. — Ecclesiastical  History.  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene 
Fathers;  First  Series,  Vol.  I.  Trans,  and  ed.  by  A.  Mc- 
Giffert.  N.  Y.,  1S90.  The  earliest  history  and  most  im- 
portant source  of  the  history  of  the  first  three  centuries. 
The  notes,  with  copious  references  and  extracts,  cover  the 
whole  range  of  the  study  of  early  Church  history  up  to  the 
time  the  work  was  published.  Scholarly,  critical  and  rever- 
ent, making  this  one  of  the  most  valuable  works  on  the 
history  of  the  first  three  centuries. 

Fisher,  G.  P. — Beginnings  of  Christianity.     N.  Y.,  1888. 

Flick,  A.  C. — The  Rise  of  the  Mediaeval  Church,  to  the  Thir- 
teenth Century.  N.  Y.,  1909.  A  valuable  contribution. 
While  not  a  comprehensive  history  of  the  Church,  each 
chapter  on  a  special  and  important  topic  is  accompanied 
by  a  full  list  of  the  sources,  special  works  and  references  by 
pages  to  all  the  principal  general  works.  The  first  two 
chapters  on  the  study  of  Church  history,  and  a  general  bib- 
liography on  Church  history  are  of  special  interest  and  value. 

Greenwood. — Cathedra  Petri.  A  Political  History  of  the  Latin 
Patriarchate.    6  vols.     Lond.,  1859-72.     Valuable. 

Gregorovius,  F. — History  of  the  City  of  Rome  in  the  Middle 
Ages.    Trans.    8  vols.     Lond.,  1894. 

Gurney,  T.  A. — The  Church  of  the  First  Three  Centuries. 
Lond.,  191 1. 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Gwatkin,  H.  M. — Early  Church  History  to  313  a.d.  2  vols. 
Lond.,  1909.  Suggestive,  interesting  and  instructive.  More 
for  the  general  reader  than  for  the  special  student. 

Harnack,  A. — The  Mission  and  Expansion  of  Christianity  in  the 
First  Three  Centuries.  Trans.  2  vols.  2nd  ed.  enlarged, 
with  maps.  N.  Y.,  1904.  Vols.  XIX,  XX  Theol.  Trans. 
Library. 

Harnack,  A.— The  Constitution  and  Law  of  the  Church  in  the 
First  Two  Centuries.  Trans.  N.  Y.,  1910.  Vol.  XXXI 
Crown  Theol.  Library. 

Harnack,  A. — History  of  Dogma.  Trans.  7  vols.  N.  Y.,  1S94- 
1899.  Vols.  II,  VII-XII  Theol.  Trans.  Library. 

Hefele,  C.  J.  A. — History  of  the  Christian  Councils  to  787  a.d. 
5  vols.     Edinb.,  1894-1896. 

Jackson,  F.  J.  Foakes. — The  History  of  the  Christian  Church 
to  the  Death  of  St.  Leo  The  Great,  461  a.d.  5th  ed. 
Camb.,  1909.  An  able  and  scholarly  presentation  in  the 
light  of  the  most  recent  investigations,  with  full  reference 
to  all  the  authorities  and  best  literature  on  every  part  of 
the  subject.  Its  very  full  synopsis  of  contents  reads  like  a 
history  in  epitome.  The  history  is  treated  under  twenty 
main  subjects,  so  that  the  chronological  divisions  often 
overlap,  and  there  is  some  repetition. 

Kelly,  H.  H. — History  of  the  Church  of  Christ  to  430  a.d. 
2  vols.  Lond.,  1901-1902.  A  convenient,  well-written  and 
scholarly  manual  by  an  English  Churchman,  director  of 
the  Society  of  the  Sacred  Mission. 

Mahan,  M. — Church  History  of  the  First  Seven  Centuries  to 
the  Close  of  the  Sixth  Council.     N.  Y.,  1872. 

Moxom,  P.  S. — From  Jerusalem  to  Nicsa.  Lowell  Lectures. 
Boston,  1895. 

Maurice,  J.  F.  D. — Lectures  on  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of 
the  First  and  Second  Centuries.    Camb.,  1854. 

Neander,  A. — Planting  and  Training  of  the  Christian  Church, 
and  Antignostikus,  or  the  Spirit  of  Tertullian.  Trans.  2 
vols.  N.  Y.,  1856.     Still  of  great  value. 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Pfleiderer,  O. — Primitive    Christianity.     Trans.     4  vols.     N.  Y. 

Pfleiderer,  O. — Christian  Origins.  N.Y.,  1906.  Scholarly,  crit- 
ical and  suggestive  studies  in  early  Church  history. 

Pressense,  E.  de. — Early  Years  of  Christianity.  Trans.  5th 
ed.  4  vols.  Lond.,  1888-1889.  A  well-known,  conservative 
French  scholar. 

Hainy,  R. — The  Ancient  Catholic  Church.  98  a.d.  to  441  a.d. 
N.  Y.,  1902.  International  Theological  Library.  Scholarly 
treatment  with  valuable  bibliography  and  references  to  the 
latest  literature. 

Ramsay,  W.  M. — The  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire  to 
917  A.D.  N.  Y.,  1S93.  Valuable  for  discussion  of  the  perse- 
cutions and  Church  in  Asia  Minor. 

Ramsay,  W.  M. — St.  Luke,  the  Physician.     Lond.,  1908. 

Renan,  E. — Origins  of  Christianity.  7  vols.  Lond.,  1888. 
Brilliant,  scholarly  and  suggestive  ;  particularly  the  last 
volume  on  Marcus  Aurelius. 

Shahan,  T.  J. — The  Beginnings  of  Christianity.     N.  Y.,  1903. 

An  interesting  and  valuable  study  by  a  Roman  Cathohc 

scholar. 
Spence,  H.  D.  M. — Early  Christianity  and  Paganism.     N.  Y., 

1902. 
Westcott,  B.  F. — The  Two  Empires.     Lond.,  1909.    The  latest 

historical  work  by  this  great  English  scholar. 
Wordsworth,  Charles. — Church  History  to  451  A.  D.    4  vols. 

V.  Works  on  the  Fathers  and  Early 
Christian  Literature 

A.  Translations,  Editions  and  Extracts 

Stearns,  W.  N.— Manual  of  Patrology.  N.  Y.,  1899.  Valuable 
for  reference  as  a  handbook  or  tabular  view. 

Lightfoot,  J.  B. — Apostolic  Fathers.  6  vols.  Lond.,  1890.  Best 
complete  edition,  with  notes  and  translations. 

Lightfoot,  J.  B. — Apostolic  Fathers,  i  vol.  Lond.,  1893.  Ab- 
breviated edition  of  the  larger  work. 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Ante-Nicene,  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers. — Three  series, 
lo,  14,  and  14  vols,  respectively,  ed.  by  Coxe,  Schaff  and 
Wace.  N.  Y.,  1890-1894.  Best  American  edition  of  trans- 
lations of  the  works  of  the  Early  Fathers,  with  notes.  The 
last  volume  contains  the  Canons  of  the  Seven  Ecumenical 
Councils. 

Bohn  Libraries  of  Ecclesiastical  Authors.   15  vols.  Lond.,  1851  ff. 

Migne,  J.  P. — Patrologia.  Paris,  1844-1866.  222  vols,  of  Latin 
Fathers.  166  vols,  of  Greek  Fathers.  Most  complete 
accessible  texts  of  Early  Fathers. 

Cambridge  Patristic  Texts.     Camb.,  1899  ff- 

Douglass  Series  of  Greek  and  Latin  Writers.  Manuals  of 
Texts,  with  notes  on  selected  works.     N.  Y.,  1877  ff. 

Routh,  M.  J. —  Reliquise  Sacrae.  2nd  ed.  5  vols.  Oxford, 
1846-1848.     Texts  of  valuable  fragments  and  remains. 

Source  Books  of  especially  selected  important  passages  and 
documents  for  historic  illustration  : 

(a)  Gwatkin,  H.  M. — Selections  from  early  writers   illus- 

trative of  Church  history  to  the  time  of  Constantine. 
Lond.,  1897.  Valuable  introductory  notes  with 
original  texts  and  translations.     Very  important. 

(b)  Henderson,   E.   F. — Select  Historical   Documents   of 

the  Middle  Ages.     N.  Y.,  1892. 

(c)  Haddan    and   Stubbs. — Councils  and   Documents  for 

English  History. 

(d)  Ogg,   F.  A. — Source  Book  of   Mediaeval  History.   N. 

Y.,  1908. 

(e)  Reich,  E. — Select   Documents   Illustrating   Mediaeval 

and  Modern  History.     Lond.,  1905. 

(f)  Robinson,    J.    H. — Readings    in    European    History. 

Boston,  1906. 

(g)  Thatcher  and   McNeal. — Source  Book  for  Mediaeval 

History.     N.  Y.,  1907. 
(h)   University  of  Pennsylvania  translations  and  reprints  of 
Original  Sources  of  European  History.  Phil.,  1894  ff. 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Editions  of  select  writings,  or  of  single  writers : 

Octavius  of  Minucius  Felix. — H.  A.  Holden.     Oxford,  1863. 

Origen,  Apology. — John  Patrick.     Edinb.,  1812. 

Tertullian. — G.  Currey.     Camb.,  1880. 

Tertullian.— Brindley.     Oxford,  1888. 

Apostolic  Canons. — Translated  R.  C.  Jenkins.    Lond.,  1856. 

Apology   and  Acts  of  ApoUonius  and  other  Monuments 

of  Early  Christianity. — F.  C.  Conybeare.     N.  Y.,  1894. 
Jewish  and  Heathen  Testimonials. —  Lardner,   N.     In  his 

works.  Vols.  VI  and  VII.     10  vols.     Lond.,  1838. 
Athanasius,  Historical  Writings. — W.  Bright.    Oxford,  1881. 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria. — C.  L.  Felton.     Camb.,  1904. 
Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  Five  Orations. — Edited    by  A.  J. 

Mason.     Camb.,  1899. 

B.  Sketches  and  Histories 

Crutwell,   C.   T. — Literary   History  of    Early  Christianity.     2 

vols.     Lond.,  1893. 
Donaldson,  James — Critical  History  of  Christian  Literature  and 

Doctrine  to  the  Nicene  Council.     3  vols.     Lond.,  1864-1866. 
Kruger,  G. — History  of  Early  Christian  Literature  in  the  First 

Three  Centuries.     Trans.     N.  Y.,  1897. 
Early  Christian  Literature  Primers. — Edited  by  G.  P.  Fisher. 

N.Y.,  1874  ff. 
Fathers    for    Enghsh    Readers. — Edited    by   H.    S.    Holland. 

Lond.,  1878  ff. 
Hort,  F.  J.  A. — Ante-Nicene  Fathers.     Six  Lectures.    Lond., 

1895. 
Lightfoot,  J.  B. — Essays  on  Supernatural  ReUgion. 
Bigg,   Charles. — Christian  Platonists  of  Alexandria.     Oxford, 

1886. 
Benson,  E.  VV. — Cyprian,    His   Life,  His  Times,  His  Works. 

Lond.,  1897. 
Bright,  Wm. — Three  Great  Fathers :   Athanasius,  Chrysostom 

and  Augustine.     Lond.,  1890. 
Schaff,  P. — St.  Chrysostom  and  St.  Augustine. 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Giles,  J.  A.— Apostolic  Records  of  Early  Christianity.     Lond., 

1886. 
Orr,  J.— Early  Christian  History  and  Literature.     N.  Y.,  1901. 
Ropes,  J.  H.— Apostolic  Age  in  Light  of   Modern  Criticism. 

N.  Y.,  1906. 

Bibliography 

Adams,  C.  K.— Manual  of  Historical  Literature.  Third  Edi- 
tion.    N.  Y.,  1889. 

Fisher,  J.  A.— Select  Bibliography  of  Ecclesiastical  History. 
Boston,  1885. 

Dowling,  J.  G.— Introduction  to  the  Critical  Study  of  Ecclesi- 
astical History.     Lond.,  1838. 

Lownde,  W.  T.— The  British  Librarian.     Lond.,  1839-1842. 

Good  bibliographies  may  be  found  in  the  following  works  on 
Church  history : 

Fisher,  G.  P.— History  of  the  Christian  Church.  N.  Y., 
1892.  Appendix  IIL  Notes  on  the  literature  of  Church 
history  to  1887. 

Schaff,  Philip.— Good  bibliographies  at  the  beginning  of  each 
chapter  as  well  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  whole  work. 
Also  in  Moeller  and  Hurst.  Also  at  the  end  of  articles 
in  the  various  encyclopaedias  and  dictionaries.  The  best, 
most  recent,  detailed  and  complete  bibliography  is  given 
in  FHck's  Rise  of  the  Mediaeval  Church.  N.  Y.,  1909. 
Lists  in  the  second  chapter  and  at  the  end  of  each  suc- 
ceeding chapter. 


Necessarily  bibliographies  are  constantly  changing  as  the  old 
gives  place  to  the  new,  and  they  also  vary  with  the  point  of 
view  of  the  reader.  Thus  the  older  general  histories  are  being 
replaced  by  the  scholarly  monographs  and  treatment  of  short 
periods  by  specialists.  It  is  one  of  the  objects  of  this  Man- 
ual to  call  attention  to  the  latest  and  most  important  of  them. 


A.  FIRST  PERIOD 

THE  APOSTOLIC  AND  THE  EARLY 

CHURCH.     FROM  THE  BIRTH 

OF  OUR  LORD  TO  THE 

EDICT  OF  MILAN. 

4  B.C.  TO  313  A.D. 


MANUAL  OF 

EARLY  ECCLESIASTICAL 

HISTORY 


A.  CHAPTER  I. 
PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY 

4  B.C.  TO   98  A.D. 

§1.  Introductory.  Preparation  for  Christianity 

CHURCH  History  is  the  history  of  all  that  con- 
cerns the  Kingdom  of  God  as  founded  on  earth 
by  Jesus  Christ.  It  describes  the  origin  and  develop- 
ment of  the  organization  and  communities  of  those 
who  profess  and  call  themselves  Christians,  including 
the  various  activities,  forms,  methods  and  manifesta- 
tions of  the  Christian  life  and  all  that  affects  it  in- 
ternally and  externally.  The  object  and  purpose  of 
the  Church  is  to  realize  in  itself  the  life  of  Christ, 
to  maintain  His  truth,  and  to  bring  the  world  through 
obedience  into  a  living  spiritual  union  with  Him. 
The  effort  to  realize  this  threefold  object  gives  us  the 
material  of  Church  History. 

Church  History  has  been  divided  into  an  Early,  a 
Mediaeval  and  a  Modern  period ;  but  the  limits  of  these 
periods  have  been  variously  fixed,  though  the  year 
1 5 17  has  been  accepted  quite  generally  as  marking  the 


PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY 


boundary  line  between  the  Mediaeval  and  the  Modern. 
For  the  present  purpose  the  year  476  is  taken  as 
marking  the  boundary  between  the  early  and  the 
mediaeval  period.  This  early  period  may  be  divided 
into  two  shorter  periods:  the  first,  down  to  313  a.d., 
when  Christianity  was  in  its  formative  organizing 
period  under  the  strain  of  frequent  persecution  and 
repression  by  the  Roman  Empire;  and  the  second, 
from  313  A.D.  to  476  A.D.,  when  as  a  recognized,  and 
finally  as  the  established  religion  of  the  Empire  it 
was  formulating  its  faith  in  the  first  four  General 
Councils,  extending  its  influence,  developing  its 
organization  and  laying  the  foundations  of  its  great 
institution  in  the  West  which  had  its  head  and  centre 
at  Rome  and  occupied  the  vacant  throne  of  the 
Caesars  —  the  Papacy.  These  periods  are  still  fur- 
ther subdivided,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  analytical 
outline. 

The  birth  of  Jesus  is,  from  any  point  of  view,  the 
central  point  in  the  world's  history.  All  events  and 
the  whole  progress  of  mankind,  before  that  fact,  look 
toward  it;  and  all  events  in  the  civilized  world  since 
then,  are  colored,  influenced  and  shaped  by  it,  and 
are  judged  and  valued  by  the  standards  which  it  has 
set  up  and  established.  The  form  of  chronology  as 
received  by  the  whole  civilized  world  bears  witness  to 
this  statement,  inasmuch  as  only  two  divisions  of  time 
are  known:  Before  Christ  and  Anno  Domini.  The 
motto  of  history  is  the  declaration  of  the  Apostle  to 
the  Galatians:  "When  the  fulness  of  the  time  came, 


INTRODUCTORY 


God  sent  forth  His  Son."     Hence  all  history  before 
Christ  is  the  preparation  for  His  coming. 

(i)  In  the  East.  Negatively,  here  as  well  as  in 
Greece  and  Rome,  the  old  religions  had  proved  their 
unfitness  and  inability  to  satisfy  the  spiritual  needs 
of  man,  and  had  fallen  into  either  dreary  scepticism 
or  wild  superstition,  and  men  were  vainly  struggling 
and  aspiring  after  something  better  than  they  knew. 
Consciously  and  unconsciously  they  were  seeking 
after  God,  and  their  condition  and  experience  were 
well  interpreted  and  met  by  St.  Paul  in  his  presen- 
tation of  Christ  to  the  Athenians  by  the  revelation  of 
"the  Unknown  God."  In  the  decay  of  the  religions 
of  Greece  and  Rome,  the  legends  and  mysteries  of 
Phrygia,  Egypt,  Syria  and  Persia  held  out  attractive 
hopes  and  visions  to  the  souls  of  men.  Cybele,  Attis, 
Isis,  Serapis,  the  Baals  and  Mithras  were  idealized 
and  worshipped.  The  propagation  of  these  oriental 
cults  levelled  the  road  for  Christianity  and  heralded 
its  triumph.  Stoicism  and  Neo-Platonism  sought  to 
revive  the  embers  of  ethical  aspiration  and  conduct, 
but  without  avail.  Neither  nature  nor  the  nature- 
gods,  nor  philosophers  and  rhetoricians  were  able  to 
provide  adequate  and  satisfactory  forms  and  objects 
of  worship,  of  inspiration  and  of  enthusiasm  for  life. 
The  high  ideal  of  harmony,  the  sense  of  peace  and 
reconciliation  were  wanting,  not  solely  on  account  of 
a  deep  conviction  of  sin,  but  of  need  and  want,  of 
something  lacking  and  unrealized,  expressed  and 
deepened  by  the  sense  of  sin. 


PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY 


(2)  There  was  a  positive  preparation  in  Greece. 
Her  art  and  her  philosophy  expressed  and  developed 
beauty,  freedom,  truth  and  the  power  of  the  human 
mind ;  while  her  language,  the  most  beautiful,  flexible 
and  capable  of  expressing  clearly  the  highest  thought 
which  the  world  has  ever  known,  was  ready  for  the 
composition  of  Gospel,  Epistle,  Sermon,  Exposition, 
Creed  and  Liturgy  of  the  Christian  Faith. 

Rome  also  prepared  literally  the  way  for  Christ. 
Law  and  order,  well-made  roads  in  every  direction, 
the  imperial  organization  and  unity,  strong  adminis- 
tration and  universal  peace,  the  wonderful  language, 
unified  and  made  possible  communication  and  the 
transmission  of  the  Gospel  through  the  newly  found 
Western  world. 

The  preparation  is  seen  also  in  the  German  tribes 
of  the  far  north ;  the  new  world  for  the  new  reli- 
gion ;  to  be  conquered  by  Christianity,  converted  to 
Christ,  civilized  and  Christianized.  Long  before  the 
fall  of  Rome  was  thought  or  dreamed  of,  those  wild 
barbarian  tribes  were  coming  into  being,  approach- 
ing and  entering  into  combination  with  each  other, 
and  then  moving,  slowly  at  first  but  ever  faster  and 
faster,  now  eastward,  then  westward,  but  always  south- 
ward ;  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  great  Roman  Empire 
which  stood  like  an  enormous  storehouse  filled  with 
all  the  treasures  of  the  past.  Behind  these  northern 
tribes  pressed  on  the  still  mightier,  more  barbarous 
and  fiercer  horde  of  the  Huns,  driving  before  them 
Visigoths  and  Ostrogoths,  Vandals  and  Lombards, 


INTRO  D  UCTOR  Y 


Franks  and  Burgundians,  till  at  last  they  burst  the 
boundaries  and  plunged  into  the  Empire,  ready  to 
receive  the  life  and  treasure  she  was  about  to  yield 
up,  but  a  life  and  treasure  already  transformed  by 
Christianity  and  which  they  in  turn  would  transmit 
to  all  the  world. 

(3)  The  preparation  in  Judaism  was  the  most 
direct.  The  whole  Old  Testament  and  the  his- 
tory of  the  people  of  Israel  are  the  record  of  it. 
The  condition  of  the  nation  in  the  time  of  Christ  is 
the  evident  realization  of  the  Apostolic  declaration. 
The  revelation  of  God,  the  covenant  of  righteousness, 
the  Messianic  hope,  the  symbolism  of  its  institutions 
and  religious  forms  and  sacrifices,  the  reigns  of  its 
kings,  the  services  of  its  priests  and  the  declarations 
of  its  prophets  all  point  to  Jesus  Christ  and  their 
fulfillment  in  Him.  Law  and  prophecy,  revelation 
and  history  find  in  Him  their  perfect  expression  and 
realization. 

(4)  The  Roman  Empire  extended  from  the  Euph- 
rates to  the  Atlantic  and  from  the  African  desert  to 
the  Danube,  Rhine  and  Weser,  with  a  population  of 
about  100,000,000.  The  rest  of  the  world  was  little 
known  and  had  no  influence  in  the  West.  It  was 
governed  in  Rome  by  the  Emperor  with  the  nominal 
concurrence  of  the  Senate,  and  in  the  provinces  by 
governors  appointed  by  the  Emperor  in  the  new 
provinces  and  appointed  by  the  Senate  in  the  older 
ones.  It  was  a  monarchical  rule  under  the  old  repub- 
lican forms.     It  was  made  up  of  many  peoples  inter- 


PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY 


mingled;  of  different  races,  languages  and  religions. 
Latins  and  latinized  peoples  predominated  in  the  west, 
the  military  and  governing  classes  being  Romans; 
Greeks  predominated  in  Greece,  Asia  Minor  and 
Egypt  and  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean;  Jews 
were  mostly  in  Palestine  and  scattered  through  the 
cities  of  the  empire  engaged  in  commerce;  Syrians, 
Arabians,  Phoenicians  and  other  native  populations, 
Celts,  Copts  and  Berbers,  in  their  own  homes,  with 
a  fringe  of  peoples  still  barbarous  and  unsubdued. 
Persians,  Parthians  and  Scythians  were  on  the  east, 
desert  tribes  in  the  south,  and  the  various  Teutonic 
tribes  in  the  north. 

The  influences  of  Egypt,  Babylonia  and  Assyria 
had  come  to  an  end.  Persia  had  affected  the  Empire 
very  little,  India  and  China  not  at  all.  The  golden 
age  of  Greece  had  passed ;  but  her  influence  was  still 
felt  in  all  that  made  for  culture  in  art,  sculpture, 
architecture,  poetry,  drama,  oratory,  history,  philos- 
ophy and  religion;  and  her  language  remained  the 
language  of  culture  and  commerce. 

The  influence  of  the  Jews  was  felt  in  commerce  as 
well  as  in  morals  and  religion.  All  religions  were 
national,  and,  except  Judaism,  had  no  connection  with 
morals,  ethics  being  a  department  of  philosophy. 
The  moral  and  physical  condition  was  rapidly  de- 
generating. Politics  were  debased  by  graft,  oppres- 
sion and  favoritism.  Family  life  was  disintegrating, 
slavery  demoralizing,  and  amusements  degrading 
society  and  the  State.     Industry  flourished,  the  com- 


INTROD  UCTOR  Y 


merce  was  enormous,  and  wealth  fairly  poured  in. 
Travel  and  education  spread  intelligence  and  culture. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Bruce,  A.  B. — Apologetics,    pp.  165-336.    7th  ed.     N.  Y.,  1904. 

Breed,  D.  R. — A  History  of  the  Preparation  of  the  World  for 
Christ.     N.  Y.,  1803. 

Davidson,  W.  L. — The  Stoic  Creed.     1907. 

DoUinger,  J.  J.  I. — The  Gentile  and  the  Jew.  2  vols.  Load., 
1862. 

Fisher,  G.  P. — Beginnings  of  Christianity.     N.  Y.,  1877. 

Hardwick,  C. — Christ  and  Other  Masters.     Lond.,  1875. 

Hausrath,  A. — History  of  the  New  Testament  Times.  6  vols. 
Lond.,  1895. 

Lux  Mundi.  Essays  by  Gore  and  others. — IV.  Preparation 
of  the  World  for  Christ. 

Maurice,  F.  D. — Religions  of  the  World.  Lond.  and  Boston, 
1880. 

Pfleiderer,  O. —  Philosophy  of  Religion.  Trans.  4  vols. 
Lond.,  1888.     Vols.  Ill  and  IV. 

Uhlhorn,  G. —  Conflict  of  Christianity  with  Heathenism. 
Lond.,  1880. 

Wernle,  P. — The  Beginnings  of  Christianity.  2  vols.  Lond., 
1908. 

Graetz,  H. — History  of  the  Jews.     5  vols.     Lond,  1892. 

Toy,  C.  H. — Judaism  and  Christianity. 

Schiirer,  E. — Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Christ.  Trans. 
5  vols.     Edinb.,  1900. 

Bigg,  Charles. — The  Church's  Task  under  the  Roman  Empire. 
Oxford,  1905. 

Fowler,  W.  W. — The  Religious  Experience  of  the  Roman 
People.     Lond.,  191 1. 

Cumont,  Franz. — The  Oriental  Rehgions  in  Roman  Pagan- 
ism. Chicago,  191 1.  A  brief,  scholarly  treatment  of  this  most 
important  subject.  After  reading  this  work  one  does  not  wonder 
at  the  success  of  Christianity  in  that  period. 

4 


10  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY 

§2.  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  Origins  of 
Christianity 

This  forms  a  subject  by  itself,  and  its  con- 
sideration belongs  to  Church  History  only  so  far  as 
Christ's  words  and  deeds  are  concerned  with  the 
founding,  or  preparation  for  the  founding,  of  His 
Church.  The  birth  of  Jesus  is  the  Incarnation  of 
the  Son  of  God,  and  the  Church  is  the  pledge  of  this 
fact  and  the  agent  of  its  realization  in  humanity. 
The  Resurrection  is  its  justification  and  the  Ascen- 
sion is  the  inspiration  of  the  Church's  activity. 

The  word  Church  occurs  only  twice  in  the  Gospels. 
Once  in  that  significant  passage,  "On  this  rock  I  will 
build  my  Church"  (St.  Matt,  xvi :  i8),  and  again  in 
St.  Matt,  xviii:  17. 

Jesus  speaks  of  HisKingdom  more  than  one  hundred 
times  in  His  parables  and  in  His  direct  teaching. 
Sometimes  the  phrase  refers  to  the  general  gover- 
nance of  God,  sometimes  to  the  heavenly  state  or  the 
ideal  realized  and  fulfilled,  but  sometimes  it  is  best 
interpreted  by  an  earthly  society,  an  organic  Kingdom 
of  which  Jesus  is  the  Head  and  King.  His  acts, 
however,  here  as  in  other  respects,  speak  louder  and 
clearer  than  His  words. 

First,  His  choice  and  commission  of  "The  Twelve," 
and  His  constant  and  intimate  association  with  them 
for  instruction,  counsel,  inspiration  and  the  confer- 
ring of  special  power  and  authority  upon  them.  (St. 
Matt,   x:  esp.    i,   5,   7,   8,   13,  14,  18,  19,  20,  27,  40; 


JESUS  CHRIST  AND  THE  ORIGINS  11 

xxvi:  20;  xxviii:  16-20.  St.  Mark  iii:  14-19;  xiv:  17; 
xvi:  14-20.     St.  Lukevi:  13-16;   xxii :  14.) 

Secondly,  His  choice  of  "The  Seventy,"  for  a 
preparatory  and  assistant  ministry.  (St.  Luke  x: 
1-20.     Cf.  St.  Matt,  x:  9-16.) 

Thirdly,  He  ordained  the  continual  observance  of 
the  two  great  sacraments:  Baptism  and  the  Eucha- 
rist or  Lord's  Supper.  He  supplied  the  fundamental 
ideas  of  Christianity:  the  Universal  Fatherhood  of 
God,  His  own  Divine  Sonship,  the  Eternal  Presence 
and  Power  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  Brotherhood  of 
Man,  and  the  Law  of  Love  and  Self-sacrifice. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 
The  Lives  of  Christ 

Fairbairn,  A.  M. — Studies  in  the  Life  of  Christ.  Most  sug- 
gestive and  interpretative. 

Farrar,  F.  W. — Life  of  Christ. 

Geikie,  C. — Life  and  Words  of  Christ. 

Neander,  A. — Life  of  Christ.     Much  used  by  later  writers. 

Edersheim. — Life  and  Times  of  Jesus  the  Messiah.  Very 
scholarly. 

Butler,  A.  A. — How  to  Study  the  Life  of  Christ.    Admirable. 
Seeley,  J.  R. — Ecce  Homo.     Lond.,  1867.    A   study  in  the 
humanity  of  Jesus.     Powerful. 

Stevens  and  Burton. — A  Harmony  of  the  Gospels. 
Weiss,  B. — Life  of  Christ.    3  vols.     Edinb.,  1890. 
Keim,  T. — Jesus  of  Nazara.    6  vols.     Lond.,  1876. 
Gilbert. — Early  Interpreters  of  Jesus. 


12  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY 

§3.  The  Church  in  Jerusalem 

The  Book  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  so  called,  is 
the  first  history  of  the  Christian  Church.  Only  in  a 
general  way  is  it  really  an  account  of  the  Apostles. 
It  is  rather  the  account  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  and 
those  associated  with  them  in  this  work.  Accor- 
dingly it  is  in  this  book  that  we  find  the  first  history 
of  the  Church  in  the  Apostolic  Age.  Taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  Epistles,  which  were  written  in  the 
time  of  which  it  treats,  we  have  all  the  direct  evi- 
dence of  the  history  of  the  Church  down  to  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  and  the  end  of  the  Apostolic 
Age. 

The  first  act  was  to  complete  the  number  twelve 
by  supplying  the  vacant  place  left  by  Judas.  This 
literalness  was  not  kept  up,  however,  and  many  bore 
the  name  of  Apostle  who  were  not  of  the  twelve. 

On  the  day  of  Pentecost,  while  the  Apostles  were 
together  in  Jerusalem  awaiting  the  fulfillment  of  the 
promise,  a  special  presence  and  power  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  came  to  them.  The  preaching  of  St.  Peter 
won  thousands  who  received  baptism,  and  the  mission 
of  the  Christian  Church  on  earth  dates  from  that  day. 
(Acts  ii:  1-41.) 

By  the  preaching  of  the  Apostles  the  Church  grew 
daily  in  Jerusalem  and  was  composed  entirely  of  Jews. 
At  first  there  was  no  separation  from  Judaism. 
The  Temple  services  were  attended,  and  the  followers 
of  Jesus  appeared  as  a  band  or  group  of  devoted  Jews 


THE  CHURCH  IN  JERUSALEM  13 

distinguished  from  others  by  believing  that  Jesus  of 
Nazareth  was  the  promised  Messiah  and  being  bap- 
tized in  that  faith,  continuing  in  the  Apostles'  teach- 
ing and  fellowship,  in  the  breaking  of  bread  and 
prayers.     (Acts  ii:  41,  42.     Cf.  St.  Luke  xxiv:  35.) 

The  Church  in  Jerusalem  included  in  its  member- 
ship both  Hebrews  and  Hellenists  (Greek-speaking 
Jews).  The  general  distribution  of  the  common 
fund  (Acts  ii:  44,  45)  became  an  important  function, 
and  on  account  of  the  complaints  of  the  Hellenists 
that  the  Hebrews  were  getting  more  than  their  share 
in  the  daily  distribution,  the  Twelve  called  the  dis- 
ciples together  and  asked  them  to  choose  seven  men 
to  give  special  attention  to  this  work.  "The  Seven" 
were  accordingly  chosen,  whom  they  set  before  the 
Apostles,  and  when  they  had  prayed  they  laid  their 
hands  upon  them.  (Acts  vi :  1-6.)  This  is  generally 
taken  to  be  the  origin  of  the  Diaconate  or  of  a  sub- 
ordinate ministry,  although  the  name  Deacon  is  not 
used,  nor  the  functions  of  the  "Seven"  definitely  fixed. 
Stephen,  one  of  the  "Seven,"  probably  a  Hellenist, 
gives  the  first  sign  of  breaking  away  from  the  strict 
Mosaic  law.  The  Jews  understood  him  to  say,  as 
they  testified,  that  "this  Jesus  of  Nazareth  shall  de- 
stroy this  place  and  shall  change  the  customs  which 
Moses  delivered  us."  (Acts  vi :  14.)  He  became 
the  first  martyr.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a  severe 
persecution  by  the  Jews  which  scattered  the  disci- 
ples far  and  wide. 

Philip,   another  of  the  "Seven,"  his  special  work 


14  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY 

being  taken  from  him,  went  to  Samaria  and  there 
preached  the  Word.  The  Gospel  was  called  "The 
Word"  and  Christianity  "The  Way."  (Cf.  Acts  ix: 
2.)  Those  who  accepted  and  believed  were  bap- 
tized only  into  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus  (Acts 
viii:  12),  but  the  Twelve  at  Jerusalem  sent  St.  Peter 
and  St.  John  who  laid  their  hands  upon  them  and 
they  received  the  Holy  Spirit.     (Acts  viii:  17.) 

Thus  Baptism  and  Confirmation  found  their  true 
place  in  the  Church.  The  experience  with  Simon 
Magus,  who  was  baptized  and  continued  with  Philip 
in  his  preaching,  and  when  he  saw  the  gift  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  in  Confirmation,  tried  to  purchase  from 
the  Apostles  the  power  of  conferring  it,  is  interesting 
because  it  has  given  his  name,  Simony,  to  the  pro- 
curing of  ecclesiastical  positions  by  purchase;  and  he 
is  regarded  as  the  first  of  the  Gnostics. 

Already  a  step  was  taken  to  carry  the  gospel  out- 
side of  the  strict  limits  of  Judaism,  for  the  Samaritans 
were  despised  by  the  Jews  (St.  John  iv:  9),  and  the 
Ethiopian  eunuch  whom  Philip  baptized  was  only  a 
proselyte.  But  a  much  more  decided  step  was  taken 
when  St.  Peter  saw  the  vision  of  the  sheet  and  bap- 
tized the  Roman  centurion  Cornelius.     (Acts  x.) 

At  the  same  time  the  Church  was  spreading  else- 
where. Others  of  the  "Seven,"  and  disciples  driven 
out  by  the  persecution  about  Stephen,  travelled 
through  Cyprus  and  Syria  into  Asia  Minor  preaching 
the  Gospel,  though  only  to  the  Jews.  But  some  of 
those  who   had  been  made  disciples  in  Cyprus  and 


THE  CHURCH  IN  JERUSALEM  15 

Cyrene  went  to  Antioch  (in  Syria)  and  there  preached 
to  the  Greeks  also,  so  that  many  were  converted. 
When  the  Twelve  heard  of  it  they  sent  Barnabas, 
himself  a  native  of  Cyprus,  to  investigate  and  report. 
He  rejoiced  greatly  and  exhorted  them  to  persevere, 
and  immediately  went  to  Tarsus  to  seek  Saul,  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  converts  to  Christianity, 
Barnabas  took  him  to  Antioch  and  began  the  great 
work  of  Gentile  Christianity.  The  name  "Chris- 
tians" was  given  to  the  disciples  first  at  Antioch,  and 
with  the  new  name  began  a  new  mission  and  a  new 
future  for  the  Church  with  Antioch  as  a  new  centre, 
and  Saul,  who  is  afterwards  known  as  Paul,  as  the  head 
and  prime  mover  in  the  work.  There  was  misunder- 
standing and  some  opposition  at  the  outset,  however, 
which  resulted  in  a  great  conference  at  Jerusalem, 
sometimes  called  the  "First  General  Council  of  the 
Church,"  which  met  to  settle  the  relation  of  the  Gen- 
tiles to  the  old  Mosaic  law,  and  the  claims  of  the 
Church.  The  year  50  a.d.  has  been  regarded  gener- 
ally as  the  date  of  this  conference,  but  the  latest 
study  of  recent  scholars  is  inclined  to  an  earlier  date, 
perhaps  as  early  as  45  or  46  a.d.  The  account 
preserved  to  us  in  Acts  xv  gives  a  glimpse  of  ec- 
clesiastical organization  and  procedure  which  is  in- 
teresting and  helpful.  Paul  and  Barnabas  with  others 
were  appointed  by  the  Church  at  Antioch  to  go  up  to 
Jerusalem  to  consult  the  Apostles  and  the  Elders. 
The  Apostles  and  Elders  were  gathered  to  consider 
the  matter.     After  a  full  and  free  discussion,  Peter 


16  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY 

gave  an  address  rehearsing  his  own  case  and  the  case 
of  Cornelius.  Then  Paul  and  Barnabas  told  what 
they  had  seen  and  done  among  the  Gentiles.  After 
all  had  finished  speaking  James  arose  and  gave  his 
"judgment,"  not  to  trouble  them  that  among  the 
Gentiles  turn  to  God;  circumcision  and  ceremonies 
of  the  Mosaic  law  were  not  to  be  required.  "Thus  it 
seemed  good  to  the  Apostles  and  the  Elders  with  the 
whole  Church  to  choose  men  out  of  their  company 
and  send  them  with  Paul  and  the  others  to  Antioch 
to  carry  out  this  decision."  They  chose  Judas  Barsa- 
bas  and  Silas,  "chief  men"  among  the  brethren. 
The  letter  which  they  were  to  carry,  began  thus: 
"The  Apostles  and  the  Elders,  Brethren,  unto  the 
brethren  who  are  of  the  Gentiles.  ...  It  seemed  good 
to  the  Holy  Spirit  and  to  us  to  lay  upon  you  no  greater 
burden  than  these  necessary  things."  We  are  not 
concerned  just  now  with  the  contents  of  this  letter 
but  rather  with  its  form  and  what  it  implies.  It  was 
undoubtedly  intended  to  be  final  and  conclusive,  as 
the  language  indicates,  and  issued  with  all  the  author- 
ity of  the  Church  and  Elders  and  Apostles,  with 
James  "the  brother  of  the  Lord"  at  their  head,  in  the 
mother  Church  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  discovered,  how- 
ever, that  it  left  many  details  unsettled ;  back  of  all 
was  still  felt  the  old  spirit  of  Jewish  prejudice  and 
exclusiveness  which  would  not  down  at  the  bidding 
even  of  "James  and  the  Apostles  and  Elders."  The 
most  striking  references  to  it  are  in  Galatians  ii: 
11-14,  and  in  Acts  xxi:  25. 


ST.  PAUL  AND  THE  GENTILE  CHURCH         17 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

von  Dobschutz,  E.— Christian  Life  in  the  Primitive  Church. 
Lond.,  1904. 

von  Dobschutz,  E.— The  Apostolic  Age.  Trans.  Boston. 
1910. 

Harnack,  A.— Acts  of  the  Apostles.     N.  Y.,  1909. 

Hamack,  A.— Luke  the  Physician.  N.  Y.,  1907.  Crown 
Theol.  Lib.,  Vols.  XIX,  XXVII. 

McGiffert,  A.  C— History  of  Christianity  in  the  Apostolic 
Age.     N.  Y.,  1896. 

von  Weiszacker,  C— The  Apostolic  Age.  Trans.  2  vols. 
N.  Y.,  1896. 

Bigg,  Charles. — Origins  of  Christianity.     Lond.,  1909. 

Pfleiderer,  O.— Christian  Origins.     Trans.     N.  Y.,  1906. 

Harnack,  A.— What  is  Christianity?     2nd  ed.     N.  Y.,  190 1, 

Shehan,T.  J.  (R.  C.)— Beginnings  of  Christianity.    N.  Y.,  1903. 

Bruce,  A.  B.— Apologetics,    pp.  336-465. 

§4.  St.  Paul  and  the  Gentile  Church 

Paul  has  been  rightly  called  the  second  founder  of 
the  Gentile  Church.  His  deep  comprehensive  grasp 
of  the  fundamental  principles  of  Christianity,  freed 
as  far  as  possible  from  anything  Jewish  or  provincial, 
and  his  keen  insight  into  all  that  was  permanent, 
justify  the  prominence  given  in  the  New  Testament 
to  his  work  and  writings  and  declare  him  to  be  the 
chief  of  the  Apostles  in  labor  and  accomplishment. 
He  made  three  missionary  journeys;  and  his  work 
extended  through  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Cyprus,  Crete, 
Macedonia  and  Greece,  and,  though  not  in  the  way 
he  intended  and  expected,  even  to  Italy  and  Rome 


18  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY 

by  way  of  Malta  and  Sicily.  But  his  most  important 
work  lay  in  Asia  Minor,  and  here  the  Christian 
Church  had  its  earliest  and  most  rapid  development. 
The  earliest  indications  of  definite  and  complete 
organization  are  found  here,  the  largest  missionary 
activity  proceeds  from  here,  and  here  the  earliest 
heretical  tendencies  are  found. 

In  Rome  the  work  of  St.  Paul  reached  its  end,  and 
the  desire  of  the  Apostle  to  preach  the  Gospel  at 
Rome  was  accomplished.  With  this  also  the  purpose 
of  the  Book  of  Acts  is  fulfilled,  the  bearing  of  the 
Gospel  from  Jerusalem  to  Rome.  At  this  point  the 
Book  of  Acts  ends.  Ancient  tradition  declares  that 
St.  Paul  was  released  at  the  end  of  the  two  years, 
journeyed  to  Spain  according  to  his  intention  ex- 
pressed in  Romans  xv:  24,  28  (cf.  Philemon  22;  Phil. 
i :  25 ;  ii :  24),  and  again  to  the  far  East,  estab- 
lishing Titus  as  the  head  of  the  Church  in  Crete,  and 
Timothy  in  Ephesus.  Then,  returning  to  Rome,  he 
was  again  imprisoned  and  put  to  death  about  68  a.d. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Conybeare,  W.  J.,  and  Howson,  J.  S. —  Life  and  Epistles  of 
St.  Paul. 

Lewin,  T. — Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul. 

Farrar,  F.  W.— Life  and  Works  of  St.  Paul. 

Means,  Stewart. — St.  Paul  and  the  Ante-Nicene  Church. 
Lond.,  1903. 

Lightfoot,  J.  B. — St.  Paul  and  the  Three  (in  Galatians,  pp. 
276-346).     St.  Paul  and  Seneca  (in  Philippians,  pp.  268-326). 

Weinel,  Heinrichs. — St.  Paul:  The  Man  and  His  Work. 
N.  Y.,  1906. 


ST.  PETER  AA'D  THE  ROMA  A'  CHURCH  \') 

§5.  St.  Peter  and  the  Roman  Church 

It  is  not  known  who  first  preached  Christianity  at 
Rome.  The  constant  stream  of  travellers,  merchants 
and  soldiers  could  not  fail  to  bring  the  Gospel  early 
to  Rome  as  everything  else  was  brought  thither. 
(Acts  xviii:  2  and  Suetonius,  Claudius  25,  testify  to 
the  fact  of  Christianity  in  Rome,  c.  50  or  52  a.d.) 
St.  Paul  wrote  his  Epistle  to  Roman  Christians  in 
58,  before  he  went  there,  and  on  his  arrival  found 
many  to  meet  and  welcome  him.    (Actsxxviii:  14-16.) 

Not  until  after  the  second  century  do  we  find  a 
clear  and  general  tradition  that  St.  Peter  went  to 
Rome.  Not  until  the  third  century  do  the  Bishops 
of  Rome  begin  to  put  forward  their  claim  to  be  his 
successors  in  the  Roman  bishopric.  By  both  Cle- 
ment and  Ignatius  his  name  is  associated  with  St. 
Paul's  in  connection  with  Rome,  and  the  term 
"Babylon"  in  I  Peter  v:  13  is  now  generally  inter- 
preted as  Rome.  It  seems  almost  certain  that  he 
was  not  in  Rome  at  the  time  of  St.  Paul's  imprison- 
ment there,  for  he  is  not  mentioned  in  Acts  nor  in 
any  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles  to  or  from  Rome.  Indeed 
St.  Paul  implies  that  when  he  wrote  to  the  Romans 
no  one  Apostle  was  responsible  for  the  Christian 
Church  there.     (Rom.  xv:  20-24.) 

Few  and  indefinite  are  the  New  Testament  and 
early  references  to  St.  Peter.  He  was  obliged  by 
Herod's  persecution,  44  a.d.,  to  leave  Jerusalem. 
(Acts  xii:  1-3,  17.)     He  was  present  at  the  Council 


20  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY 

and  then  went  to  Antioch.  (Acts  xv:/,  35,  40.  Gal. 
ii:  9,  II.)  Tradition  places  him  at  Antioch  as  its 
Bishop  before  he  went  to  Rome.  His  residence  in 
Rome  could  not  have  been  long,  but  it  is  probable  that 
there  he  received  the  martyr's  crown  at  the  hands  of 
the  Emperor  Nero.  The  legend  of  a  twenty-five-years 
episcopate  in  Rome  is  not  earlier  than  the  fourth 
century  and  is  inconsistent  with  all  the  known  facts 
in  the  early  history. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Robinson,  C.  S. — Simon  Peter:  His  Life  and  Times.  2  vols. 
Lond.,  1895. 

Ryburg,  A.  V. — Roman  Legends  about  the  Apostles  Paul 
and  Peter.     Lond.,  1898. 

Hatch,  E. — "  Peter."  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.  9th  ed.  (See 
also  the  Ecclesiastical  Dictionaries  and  Encyclopaedias.) 

Spence,  H.  D.  M. — Early  Christianity  and  Paganism.  App. 
B.,  St.  Peter  at  Rome.     N.  Y.,  1902. 

Flick,  A.  C. — The  Rise  of  the  Mediaeval  Church,     (pp.  71-90.) 

King,  Francis. — The  Primacy  of  Peter.     Lond.,  1907. 

Kruger,  H.  G.  E. — The  Papacy.     Trans.     N.  Y.,  1909. 

Allnatt,  C.  F.  B.— Was  St.  Peter  Bishop  of  Rome?  Lond., 
1903. 

§6.  St.  James,  St.  John  and  the  Other  Apostles 

We  have  trustworthy  accounts  of  only  the  most 
distinguished  of  the  other  Apostles. 

James,  the  brother  of  John,  suffered  a  martyr's 
death  in  Jerusalem  44  a.d.  There  is  only  tradi- 
tion to  guide  us  regarding  the  life  of  St.  John  after 
he  and  St.  Peter  had   laid  their  hands  on  the  newly 


ST.  J  AMES,  ST.JOHN  AND  OTHER  APOSTLES   21 

baptized  Christians  in  Samaria,  converted  by  St. 
Philip,  one  of  the  "Seven."  A  very  early  and  gene- 
rally accepted  tradition,  first  set  forth  in  connection 
with  the  Easter  Controversies  in  the  middle  of  the 
second  century  by  Polycarp  of  Smyrna  (Eus.,  H.  E., 
v:  24),  declares  that  soon  after  the  death  of  St.  Paul, 
which  removed  his  oversight  at  Ephesus,  St.  John 
settled  there,  and,  except  for  the  period  of  his  exile 
to  Patmos  (exact  date  not  known),  remained  there 
until  his  death  about  98  a.d.  This  tradition  has 
lately  been  called  into  question,  however,  on  account 
of  finding  no  evidence  earlier  than  Irenaeus,  but  the 
tradition  through  Polycarp  and  Irenaeus  seems  strong 
enough  to  hold. 

The  traditions  regarding  the  other  Apostles  and  the 
composition  of  the  Apostles'  Creed  are  all  so  legen- 
dary that  it  is  hard  to  pick  out  the  kernel  of  reality. 
Ancient,  at  least  according  to  Eusebius,  are  the  tra- 
ditions that  St.  Thomas  preached  in  Parthia,  St. 
Andrew  in  Scythia,  and  St.  Bartholomew  in  India; 
though,  in  later  traditions,  St.  Thomas  appears  as 
the  Apostle  of  India.  St.  Mark,  cousin  of  St. 
Barnabas,  companion,  first  of  St.  Paul,  then  of  St. 
Peter,  and  writer  of  the  second  gospel,  on  the  basis 
of  a  tradition  found  at  the  end  of  the  second  century 
and  quoted  by  Eusebius,  was  the  founder  and  first 
bishop  of  the  Church  of  Alexandria. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCE 

Fouard,  C. — St.  John  and  the  Closing  of  the  Apostolic  Age. 
N.  Y.,  1905. 


22  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY 

§7.  Worship  and  Organization 

The  Christian  Church  is  essentially  the  creation  of 
Jesus  Christ.  He  supplied  its  fundamental  ideas; 
gathered  the  first  disciples,  out  of  whom  He  chose 
twelve  Apostles  and  seventy  Evangelists,  the  first 
Christian  ministry;  ordained  the  sacraments  of  Bap- 
tism and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  taught  and  com- 
missioned the  twelve  Apostles  to  continue  His  work. 
The  earliest  authoritative  definition  of  the  Church  is 
found  in  Acts  ii:  42:  "The  Apostles'  doctrine  and 
fellowship,  the  breaking  of  bread,  and  the  prayers." 

According  to  its  outward  historical  appearance,  the 
Church  comprised  the  acknowledged  followers  of 
Jesus  Christ.  For  the  purposes  of  legal  existence, 
religious  self-attestation  and  expression,  and  the 
achievement  of  its  great  end  and  mission  in  the  world, 
it  has  developed  forms  of  constitution  and  govern- 
ment, for  the  expression  of  religious  and  moral  life, 
and  for  the  regulation  of  doctrine  and  education. 

From  the  very  first.  Baptism  was  the  sacrament  by 
which  all  were  brought  into  union  with  Christ  in  the 
Church.  Not  only  individuals  but  whole  households 
were  thus  admitted.  (Acts  xvi:  15,  33.  I  Cor. 
i:  16.)  It  was  followed  by  the  laying  on  of  hands 
that  the  baptized  might  "receive  the  Holy  Ghost," 
the  spiritual  power  of  the  Christian  life. 

The  central  service  of  the  Christian  Church  was, 
from  the  beginning,  the  "Lord's  Supper,"  or  Eucha- 
rist, instituted  by  our  Lord  Himself  at  that  last  supper 


WORSHIP  AND  ORGANIZATION  23 

with  the  Apostles  with  the  command,  "Do  this  in 
remembrance  of  Me. "  As  at  the  institution,  so  after- 
ward for  a  while  it  was  celebrated  after  a  solemn 
evening  meal,  called  the  Agape,  on  the  first  day  of 
the  week,  the  day  when  He  first  appeared  to  them 
alive  after  His  crucifixion,  and  which,  from  that  very 
day,  has  always  been  kept,  as  not  only  the  celebra- 
tion, but  the  witness  and  the  pledge  of  His  resur- 
rection. (I  Cor.  x:  16-21 ;  xi  120-34;  xvi :  2.  Acts 
XX :  7.)  Prayers  and  thanksgiving,  exhortation,  teach- 
ing and  reading  from  the  Old  Testament  and  Apos- 
tolic letters,  psalms,  and  hymns,  with  an  offertory, 
formed  the  ordinary  services.  (I  Cor.  xvi :  2.  Acts 
ii:  42;  viii:  4;  xi:  19.  James  iii.  I  Tim.  ii.  Col. 
iv:  16.  Eph.  v:  19.  Col.  iii:  16.  Pliny,  Epistles, 
x:  97.) 

The  separate  assembling  of  the  Christians  appears 
from  Acts  ii:  40-47;  I  Cor.  xi:  17-20;  xiv:  26;  Heb. 
x:  25.  Among  the  Hebrew  Christians,  at  first,  these 
meetings  were  supplemental  to  the  Temple  or  syna- 
gogue worship  (Acts  iii:  i,  11;  xiv:  i;  xvii:  2;  xix: 
8;  xiii:  14-16),  and  sometimes  were  held  in  one  of 
the  halls  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  At  a  later 
period  and  among  the  Gentiles  they  were  held  in  pri- 
vate houses  or  in  rented  halls.  All  these  services 
were  open  to  believers  and  unbelievers  alike  (I  Cor. 
xiv:  16,  24),  with  a  special  place  assigned  to  un- 
believers (verse  16).  But  the  celebration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  was  restricted  to  those  who  Avere  in 
the  full  communion  of  the  Church.     (I  Cor.  v:  1-5, 


24  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY 

9-11.  I  Tim.  i:20.  Gal.  i:  8,  9.  II  John,  10,  11. 
II  Thess.  iii:  14.     Titus  iii:  10.     Rom.  xvi :  17.) 

Excommunication  was  practised,  not  for  punish- 
ment, but  for  the  preservation  of  the  purity  of  the 
Church  and  the  reformation  of  the  offender.  (Gal. 
vi:i.  II  Cor.  ii :  7,  8.  I  Cor.  v:  5;  xi:  32.)  Confession 
and  Holy  Unction  for  the  healing  of  the  sick  were 
recommended.  (James  v:  14,  16.)  Ordination  to 
office  in  the  Church  was  performed  by  laying  on  of 
hands.     (Acts  viii :  17;  vi :  6;  xiii :  3.     I  Tim.  iv:  14.) 

As  the  New  Testament  presents  us  with  all  the 
material  of  our  faith,  the  whole  truth  of  Christianity, 
out  of  which  and  in  conformity  with  which  the  faith 
of  the  Church  has  been  formulated  and  embodied  in 
a  Creed,  although  the  New  Testment  does  not  give  us 
the  formulated  Creed;  so  it  presents  to  us  the  facts 
and  conditions  on  which  the  organization  of  the 
Church  was  based  and  out  of  which  developed  the 
Christian  ministry  in  the  three  orders:  Bishops, 
Presbyters  and  Deacons,  although  it  does  not  furnish 
a  written  constitution,  nor  the  final  and  detailed  form 
of  that  ministry.  Jesus  declared  that  He  founded 
His  Church  upon  the  fact  of  the  Incarnation  and  the 
acknowledgment  of  Himself  as  the  Christ,  the  Son 
of  God.  (St.  Matthew  xvi:  16-18.)  And  St.  Paul  de- 
clared to  the  Ephesians  (Eph.  ii :  20)  that  it  was  "built 
upon  the  foundation  of  the  Apostles  and  Prophets, 
Jesus  Christ  Himself  being  the  chief  corner  stone." 
(Cf.  I  Peter  ii :  4-8.)  TheTwelve  Apostles  were  chosen 
out  of  the  first  members  of  the  Church,  among  the  earli- 


WORSHIP  AND  ORGANIZATION  25 

est  followers  of  Christ,  to  hold  a  special  position  and 
to  exercise  special  functions  in  the  Church.  "Ye  did 
not  choose  me,  but  I  chose  you  and  appointed  you  that 
you  should  go  and  bear  fruit. ' '  (Cf .  St.  Matt,  x :  i .  St. 
Luke  vii:  3.)  The  Seventy  also  were  chosen  for  a 
special  work,  to  prepare  the  way  for  His  coming  and 
to  carry  the  blessings  of  the  Gospel  dispensation. 
(St.  Luke  x:  1-20.)  Thus  the  Gospel  record  sets 
before  us  the  threefold  ministry:  Jesus,  The  Twelve, 
The  Seventy.  In  the  Apostolic  period  we  get  a 
glimpse  of  the  organization  of  the  Church  at  Jerusa- 
lem in  the  Council  of  Jerusalem.  (Acts  xv:  2,  4,  13, 
19,  22.)  This  was  the  central  authoritative  Church  of 
the  Apostolic  period;  and  we  note  here  the  threefold 
ministry,  St.  James,  the  Apostles,  the  Elders.  To 
complete  the  picture  we  shall  find  in  the  next  period, 
in  the  Epistles  of  Ignatius,  the  organization  of  the 
Churches  in  Asia  Minor  at  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century,  i.e.,  the  threefold  ministry:  The  Bish- 
op, the  Presbyters,  the  Deacons  (Ignatius  Ep.  to  the 
Trallians,  II).  Ignatius  deliberately  declares  this 
to  be  a  copy  of  the  Gospel  and  Jerusalem  order,  for 
the  Bishop  is  in  the  place  of  Christ  (we  have  been 
told  that  St.  James  held  his  place  in  the  Church  at 
Jerusalem  because  he  was  "the  Lord's  brother"),  and 
the  Presbyters  in  the  place  of  the  Apostles,  while 
the  Deacons  are  by  Divine  (that  is  later)  command 
(perhaps  to  represent  the  Seventy,  subordinate  to  the 
Twelve).  Furthermore,  in  his  letters  addressed  to 
various  Churches  in  Asia,  Ignatius  urges   them    to 

5 


26  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY 

hold  fast  to  their  Bishop,  the  head  of  the  local  Church, 
in  order  to  preserve  unity  and  to  keep  out  heresy. 
He  speaks  as  if  having  in  view  the  two  aspects  of  the 
Church  which  we  have  already  cited.  Nor  does  he 
speak  of  the  single  Bishop  as  a  new  institution.  He 
exhorts  the  Christians  in  the  various  Churches  in 
Asia  to  reverence  and  uphold  their  Presbyters  and 
Deacons  as  well  as  their  Bishop.  His  cry  is,  "Rally 
around  your  spiritual  Chiefs!"  The  fact  that  they 
form  a  threefold  rather  than  a  twofold  order  is  of 
secondary  importance  to  his  argument;  he  treats  that 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  uncontested  and  traditional,  and 
as  though  he  had  no  need  to  urge  its  acceptance. 
This  testimony  to  the  existence  of  the  single  Bishop 
in  so  many  Churches  at  such  an  early  date  is  the  very 
reason  why  these  Epistles  were  so  long  viewed  with 
suspicion  in  some  quarters. 

Toward  the  middle  of  the  second  century  the 
monarchical  Episcopate  also  comes  before  us  in  an 
undisputed  tradition  in  the  western  communities  of 
Rome,  Lyons,  Corinth,  Athens  and  Crete  as  well  as 
in  more  eastern  localities.  Nowhere  is  there  a  trace 
of  any  protest  against  a  sudden  revolution,  any  change 
transferring  the  government  from  a  college  of  Bishops 
or  Presbyters  to  a  single  head. 

St.  Paul  divides  the  early  ministry  of  the  Church 
into  two  classes:  the  spiritual,  missionary,  or  itin- 
erant ministry,  comprising  Apostles,  Prophets  and 
Teachers ;  and  the  local,  administrative  officers.  The 
first  evidence  of  this  distinction  is  seen  in  Acts  vi, 


WORSHIP  AND  ORGANIZATION  27 

where,  under  the  direction  of  the  twelve  Apostles,  the 
Seven  are  chosen  to  serve  tables.  Chrysostom  sees 
in  this  account  the  origin  of  neither  Deacons  nor 
Presbyters  specifically.  (Horn,  on  Acts,  xiv.)  It 
was  Cyprian  of  Carthage  who  fixed  the  traditional 
interpretation  that  it  is  the  institution  of  the  Diac- 
onate.  (Ep.  64:  3.)  The  names  of  the  local  officers 
are  Bishops,  Presbyters,  and  Deacons,  according  to 
the  order  in  which  we  find  them  in  Ignatius  at  the 
beginning  of  the  second  century;  but  there  is  much 
discussion  and  difference  of  opinion  regarding  the 
origin  and  application  of  these  names  in  the  New 
Testament,  as  they  are  used  in  both  a  general  and 
technical  sense.  Bishops  and  Deacons  are,  however, 
usually  associated  together  and  it  seems  sometimes  as 
if  Presbyter  was  used  in  a  general  way  as  compre- 
hending both.  Following  Jerome,  it  has  been  held 
by  many  that  Presbyter  and  Bishop  were  inter- 
changeable terms;  but  it  is  now  held  by  the  best 
scholars  that  although  all  Bishops  might  be  Presby- 
ters, not  all  Presbyters  were  Bishops.^ 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  the  New  Testament  and 
many  early  writers  references  to  the  local  officers  are 
made  to  them  in  the  plural,  and  there  are  many- 
theories  to  explain  the  method  by  which  what  is 
called  the  monarchical  or  single  Episcopate  was 
brought  about.      It   is    probable    that    the   process 

^McGiffert,  p.  663  and  note  i.    Allen,  Ch.  Inst.,  pp.  79-80. 
Duchesne,  pp.  69-70. 


28  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY 

varied  in  different  Churches  according  to  the  different 
times  and  conditions  of  each.  It  must  have  been 
very  early;  not  only  because  all  signs  of  the  Collegiate 
-Episcopate  disappeared  before  the  middle  of  the 
■second  century,  but  because  of  the  necessities  of  the 
case  and  the  tendency  based  upon  early  precedents. 
Jesus,  Peter,  James,  and  Paul,  each  occupied  a  single 
and  unique  relation  to  those  with  whom  he  associated. 
The  general  necessity  of  a  single  head  or  president  is 
at  once  recognized.  Even  an  ordinary  committee 
has  to  have  a  chairman.  Government  cannot  be 
carried  on  by  commission.  In  the  affairs  of  the 
Church  the  need  would  be  even  more  apparent,  in 
maintaining  unity,  in  carrying  on  communication 
with  other  Churches,  administering  alms,  and  es- 
pecially in  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
One  theory  is  that  of  localization  of  an  Apostle  or 
Prophet,  or  someone  sent  by  an  Apostle,  as  in  Jerusa- 
lem, in  Ephesus  and  in  Crete;  another  theory  is  that 
of  elevation  out  of  the  Presbyterate,  as  Lightfoot 
argues  from  appearances  in  Alexandria.  The  con- 
clusion seems  to  be  that  the  monarchical  Episcopate, 
which  was  foreshadowed  in  the  appointments  made 
by  Christ  and  realized  in  the  constitution  of  the 
Church  at  Jerusalem  and  in  Asia  Minor,  really  existed 
from  the  first  century,  and  only  emerged  into  clearer 
and  clearer  light  as  the  mists  of  the  early  obscurity 
cleared  away.  The  latest  researches  are  making  this 
increasingly  evident. 

Surely  the  establishment  of  the  genuineness  of  the 


WORSHIP  AND  ORGANIZATION  29 

Greek  recension  of  the  Seven  Epistles  of  Ignatius 
and  their  assignment  to  the  early  part  of  the  second 
century  (107-116),  and  the  recent  discovery  of  the 
Didache,  taken  with  the  evidence  already  on  hand, 
confirm  and  justify  the  statement  made  in  the  Preface 
to  the  Ordinal  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer:  "It  is 
evident  unto  all  men  diligently  reading  Holy  Scrip- 
ture and  Ancient  Authors,  that  from  the  Apostles' 
time  there  have  been  these  Orders  of  Ministers  in 
Christ's  Church, — Bishops,  Priests,  and  Deacons." 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Jacob,  G.  A. — Ecclesiastical  Polity  of  the  New  Testament, 
5th  ed.     N.  Y.,  1879. 

Cotterill,  H. — Genesis  of  the  Church.     Edinb.,  1872. 

Lightfoot,  J.  B.— The  Christian  Ministry.  In  "Philippians" 
and  separately. 

Mcllhenney,  John  J.— Doctrine  of  the  Church.    Phila.,  1879. 

Hort,  F.  J.  A. — The  Christian  Ecclesia.     Lond.,  1897. 

Hatch,  Edwin. — Organization  of  Early  Christian  Churches. 
Bampton  Lectures,  18S0. 

Vos,  Gerhardus. — The  Teaching  of  Jesus  Concerning  the 
Kingdom  and  the  Church.     N.  Y.,  1903. 

Lowrie,  Walter. —  Church  and  Organization,  pp.  9-30  ;  85-1 55  ; 
271-312;  351-402. 

Harnack,  A. — Constitution  and  Law,  etc.    pp.  6-39. 

Expositor,  Third  Series,  Vol.  V,  January-June,  1887.  Articles 
by  Sanday,  Harnack,  Gore  and  others. 

See  also  Bibliography  in  A  II,  §9,  and  A  III,  \-]. 


30  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY 

§8.  The  Spread  of  Christianity  and  Early 
Persecutions 

During  the  first  century  Christianity  spread  silently 
and  rapidly  in  the  districts  marked  by  the  missionary 
activity  of  Paul  and  the  other  Apostles  and  Evange- 
lists, into  Palestine,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  Italy, 
North  Africa,  Egypt,  Arabia,  possibly  also  Spain  in 
the  west,  and  in  the  east  toward  Persia,  Scythia  and 
Armenia.  It  followed  at  first  the  track  of  the  Jewish 
Dispersion  and  the  chief  commercial  routes  of  the 
Empire;  thus  establishing  itself  in  the  principal  cities 
and  along  the  main  highways  of  commerce  and  travel, 
with  Antioch,  Ephesus,  Alexandria  and  Rome  as  its 
great  centres,  and  the  seacoast  towns  of  Palestine 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

At  first  the  Apostles,  Prophets,  Teachers  and  Evan- 
gelists were  the  appointed  Apostolic  missionaries; 
but  every  Christian  was  a  missionary,  and  soldiers, 
sailors,  merchants  and  travellers  carried  the  Gospel 
as  seeds  are  borne  by  every  passing  wind.  Not  with- 
out opposition,  however.  At  first  they  were  the 
object  of  suspicion  and  hatred  by  the  Jews,  whose 
attacks  are  recorded  or  implied  in  the  Acts  and  other 
writings  of  the  New  Testament;  they  soon  came 
under  the  notice  of  the  Emperor,  although  at  first 
regarded  as  a  sect  of  the  Jews.  The  earliest  evidence 
of  this,  as  of  the  existence  of  Christians  in  Rome, 
is  found  in  the  statement  of  Suetonius,  that  Clau- 
dius,  54  A.D.,  "expelled  the   Jews   from    Rome   for 


SPREA  D  A  ND  EA  RL  Y  PERSECUTIONS  3 1 

raising  incessant  tumults  about  Chrestus."  (Cf. 
Acts  xviii:  2.) 

The  next  event  was  the  massacre  by  Nero  64  a.d. 
The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  70  a.d.  under  Ves- 
pasian made  clear  and  final  the  separation  of  the 
Christians  from  the  Jews,  and  deprived  them  of  what 
little  protection  they  might  have  had  against  the 
Empire,  as  a  sect  of  the  Jews. 

The  beginning  of  persecution  was  due  to  popular 
dislike  based  on  the  disturbance  which  Christianity 
caused  in  the  existing  relations  of  society,  especially 
in  the  family,  in  amusements  and  in  business,  in 
which  it  displayed  so  much  aggressiveness  and  in- 
tolerance. Interference  with  trade  and  family  rela- 
tions are  noted  as  early  as  Acts  xvi:  16-21 ;  Acts  xix: 
19,  24-27 ;  Eph.  vi :  5-9 ;  St.  Matt,  x :  34-37 ;  I  Cor.  vii : 
10-16;  x:  24-32;  I  Tim.  vi:  i,  2:  Tit.  ii:  1-6;  iii:  i,  2. 

The  isolation  and  aloofness  of  the  Christians  and 
their  unwillingness  to  take  part  in  social,  domestic, 
business  and  public  life,  savored  of  contempt  and  led 
to  their  being  considered  bad  citizens  and  enemies  of 
the  human  race.  They  were  regarded  as  holding  a 
foreign  and  degrading  superstition,  despising  the 
Roman  gods  and  bringing  disasters  upon  the  Empire. 
Denying  the  deity  of  the  Emperor  and  refusing  to  pay 
divine  honors  to  his  image,  they  were  guilty  of 
treason,  and  also  showed  themselves  enemies  of  the 
State  by  predicting  the  end  of  the  Empire  and  of  the 
world.  All  this  was  intensified  by  the  popular  rumors 
that  their  nightly  meetings  were  celebrated  with  in- 


32  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY 

human  rites  and  Thyestian  feasts.  They  were  re- 
garded as  a  people  shunning  the  light,  skulking  in 
darkness,  morose  and  silent  in  public,  but  garrulous  in 
corners.  There  are  instances  of  their  protection,  by 
Roman  officers,  from  Jewish  fanaticism,  as  seen  in 
Acts;  but  in  general,  unprotected  by  the  law,  they 
were  an  easy  prey  to  the  bigotry  and  vengeance  of 
their  Jewish  neighbors.  The  ill-will  of  the  religious 
authorities  was  united  with  public  opinion.  The 
Romans  soon  realized,  also,  that  if  they  were  Jews 
they  were  a  different  kind  from  any  they  had  known. 
According  to  Tacitus,  the  persecution  of  Nero,  which 
began  for  the  sake  of  diverting  public  attention  toward 
them  as  responsible  for  the  burning  of  Rome,  was  con- 
tinued as  a  permanent  police  measure  under  the  form 
of  a  general  prosecution  of  Christians  as  a  sect  dan- 
gerous to  the  public  safety.  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul 
probably  suffered  at  Rome  during  this  reign. 

Nero's  action  served  as  a  precedent  in  every  prov- 
ince. No  general  edict  or  formal  law  was  necessary 
in  dealing  with  the  cases  which  came  before  the  im- 
perial judges.  Thus,  in  the  time  of  Nero,  the  Empire 
for  the  first  time  adopted  a  definite  attitude  toward 
the  new  religion,  which  it  had  treated  hitherto  with 
indifference  or  contempt.  Whether  Vespasian  allowed 
the  persecution  to  continue  or  not,  we  cannot  say.* 
It  is  probable,  however,  that  he  did.  At  any  rate  we 
find  it  in  Domitian's  reign,  and  not  due,  as  in  Nero's 

*See  Ramsay,  p.  257,  and  Jackson,  p.  52,  note. 


SPREAD  AND  EARLY  PERSECUTIONS  33 

case,  to  any  personal  idiosyncrasies.  The  most  im- 
portant victim  was  Flavius  Clemens,  the  Emperor's 
cousin.  The  first  use  of  Caesar  worship  as  a  test 
of  Christians  was  made  probably  in  Domitian's  reign. 
Really,  persecution  for  the  Name,  on  the  general 
charge  of  odium  generis  humani,  began  in  Nero's 
reign,  and  continued,  under  the  indefinite  coercitio  of 
the  magistrates,  urged  on  by  the  hostility  of  the 
fanatical  masses. 

Domitian  wanted  to  restore  the  national  cult,  of 
which  an  important  part  or  symbol  was  the  worship 
of  the  Emperor.  Christianity  itself  was  disloyalty 
under  Domitian,  therefore  Christianity  was  treated 
as  treasonable.  Probably  St.  John  suffered  martyr- 
dom in  his  reign.  Not  criminal  acts,  but  the  whole 
principle  showed  the  crime.  Ramsay  says,  "The 
silence  between  Nero  and  Domitian  is  due  to  lack 
of  historians  and  attention  to  other  things.  If  the 
early  Christians  had  given  much  thought  to  their 
persecutions  they  would  not  have  conquered  the 
world." 

The  members  of  a  sect  whose  tendency  was  to  unset- 
tle the  foundations  of  society  were  held  as  outlaws  and 
the  very  name  treated  as  a  crime.  The  attitude  of  the 
State  toward  the  Christians  during  the  Flavian  period 
is  well  stated  by  Mommsen:  "The  persecution  of  the 
Christians  was  a  standing  matter,  as  was  that  of 
robbers  or  brigands."  The  real  motive  of  the  im- 
perial policy  was  political,  not  religious.  The  im- 
perial system   was  inconsistent   with  the  Christian 


34  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY 

principles   of   life   and  society;   collision  was    inev- 
itable. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Glover,  T.  R. —  Conflict  of  Religions  in  the  Early  Roman 
Empire.     3rd  ed.     Lond.,  1907. 

Farrar,  F.  W. — Early  Days  of  Christianity.  2  vols.  Lond., 
1882. 

Ramsay,  W.  M. — The  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire.  N.  Y., 
1893. 

Westcott,  B.  F. — The  Two  Empires.     Lond.,  1909. 

Cunningham,  Wm. — Churches  of  Asia.     Lond.,  1880. 

Herkless,  John. — Early  Christian  Martyrs.     Lond.,  1904. 

University  of  Pennsylvania  Reprints,  Vol.  IV,  No  i. 

Foxe. — Acts  and  Monuments. 

See  also  All,  §2,  and  A  III,  §2. 


A.  CHAPTER  II. 
THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

98    A.D.    TO    180    A.D. 

§1.  The  Spread  of  Christianity 

DURING  this  period,  Christianity  spread  far- 
ther and  farther  through  and  beyond  the  Em- 
pire; was  strengthened  and  consolidated,  and  met 
the  attacks  from  within  and  without  with  increasing 
energy  and  confidence.  Christianity  was  now  fairly 
embarked  on  its  world  conquest.  The  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  70  a.d.  and  its  complete  demolition 
135  A.D.  completed  the  separation  of  Christianity 
from  Judaism.  The  growing  organization  of  the 
Church  made  its  spread  all  the  faster  and  surer,  so 
that  at  the  close  of  this  period  certain  places  began 
to  come  into  prominence  as  centres  of  organized 
Christianity. 

Caesarea  now  became  the  chief  centre  in  Palestine, 
and  the  sea  coast  towns  received  the  Gospel.  An- 
tioch  grew  in  importance  as  a  centre  from  which 
Christianity  spread  eastward  to  the  heathen  world  of 
Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Parthia,  Armenia,  Chaldaea  and 
Persia,  with  Edessa  as  its  chief  centre. 

Still  larger  conquests  were  made  in  Asia  Minor 
along  the  west  coast,  and  in  Bithynia,  Pontus,  and 
Cappadocia,    until   it    became    the    great    centre    of 


36  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

Christian  life  and  activity.  Pliny's  letter  is  authority 
for  the  wide  spread  of  Christianity  in  all  places  and 
among  all  classes. 

From  Asia  Minor  it  spread  across  the  ^gean  Sea 
to  Thrace,  Macedonia  and  Achaia,  with  Corinth  as  a 
chief  centre.  From  Asia  Minor  also  to  Gaul;  where 
the  chief  centres  were  Aries,  Lyons  and  Vienne;  from 
which  it  spread  to  Britain,  probably  at  this  time. 

Alexandria  and  Rome  were  also  centres  of  influ- 
ence and  of  missionary  enterprise.  From  Alexandria, 
Christianity  spread  through  Egypt  and  the  Thebaid; 
to  the  East  through  Arabia,  and  to  the  West  through 
Cyrenaica;  as  is  shown  by  the  Syriac  and  two  Coptic 
versions  of  the  Scriptures,  and  early  Christian  writings. 
Bostra  was  one  of  the  chief  centres  in  the  East. 

From  Rome  it  crossed  the  Mediterranean  to  Maure- 
tania  and  Numidia  in  North  Africa,  with  Carthage  as 
the  chief  centre.  Here  was  the  early  home  of  Latin 
Christianity,  when  Rome  itself  was  a  Greek  religious 
colony.  At  this  time,  also,  Christianity  was  estab- 
lished in  Spain. 

Already,  undoubtedly,  soldiers  from  the  various 
German  tribes,  serving  in  the  imperial  armies,  were 
converted  to  Christianity;  but  its  establishment  in  the 
northern  provinces  took  place  probably  in  the  next 
period. 

During  this  period  Asia  Minor  was  the  spiritual 
centre  of  Christianity.  Here  it  followed  very  evi- 
dently the  lines  by  which  the  trade  of  central  Asia 
was    carried    to    Rome.       Many    causes   have    been 


THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY  37 

assigned  for  its  wide  and  rapid  spread.  The  five 
named  by  Gibbon  in  his  famous  fifteenth  chapter, 
are:  intolerant  zeal,  future  rewards  and  punishments, 
miracles,  austere  morals  and  compact  organization. 
Kurtz  sums  it  up  in  a  line:  "The  emptiness  and 
corruption  of  paganism  were  the  negative,  the  divine 
nature  and  power  of  the  Gospel  were  the  positive 
means  of  this  wonderful  extension."  In  detail  the 
reasons  may  be  stated  as  follows: 

(i)  Great  hope  and  belief  in  immortality.  (2)  High 
morality  and  supreme  importance  of  it,  (3)  Pure 
spiritual  conception  of  the  unity  and  personality  of 
God.  (4)  Noble  fortitude  and  endurance  of  trial 
and  persecution.  (5)  Zeal  and  earnestness.  (6) 
Charity.      (7)  Organization. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Dill,  S. —  Roman  Society  from  Nero  to  Marcus  Aurelius. 
Lond.,  1904. 

Thomas,  Emile  —  Roman  Life  under  the  Caesars.  N.  Y.,  1899. 

Uhlhorn,  G. —  Christian  Charity  in  the  Ancient  Church. 
Trans.     N.  Y.,  1883. 

Friedlander — Roman  Life  and  Manners  under  the  Early 
Empire.    Trans.     3  vols.     Lond.,  1909. 

Hamack,  A. —  The  Mission  and  Expansion  of  Christianity. 
Vol.  II,  pp.  89-96. 

Merivale,  Charles  — Conversion  of  the  Roman  Empire.  N.  Y., 
1867. 

Lecky,  W.  E.  H. —  History  of  European  Morals.  2  vols.  N. 
Y.,  1895. 

Ramsay,  W.  M. —  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire. 


38  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

§2.  The  Persecutions  Under  "The  Good 
Emperors" 

The  Accession  of  Nerva  (96  a.d.)  marked  the  be- 
ginning of  the  reign  of  "The  Five  Good  Emperors." 
Nerva  himself  (96-98  a.d.)  was  tolerant  to  the 
Christians,  but  with  the  reign  of  Trajan  (98-117  a.d.) 
we  note  the  beginning  of  a  time  of  bitter  and  con- 
tinued persecution.  The  high  statesmanship  of  these 
Emperors  and  their  devotion  to  the  interests  of  the 
Empire  made  them  see  more  clearly  the  essential  an- 
tagonism of  Christianity  to  the  principles  of  the  Em- 
pire as  they  understood  them. 

The  persecutions  were  political  rather  than  reli- 
gious. They  were  less  capricious  but  more  rigorous. 
They  were  regulated  by  law ;  but  although  no  edicts 
were  issued  against  the  Christians,  and  few  efforts 
made  to  search  them  out,  the  imperial  rescripts 
authorized  the  severest  penalties  against  those  who 
were  brought  before  the  tribunals  and  refused  to  re- 
nounce the  Christian  name  and  to  pay  divine  honors 
to  the  Emperor.  The  well-known  correspondence 
between  Trajan  and  Pliny,  the  Governor  of  Bithynia 
(112  A.D.)  who  described  Christianity  as  "a  depraved 
and  unreasonable  superstition,"  indicates  the  im- 
perial policy  of  the  whole  period.  The  whole  pro- 
cedure was  regulated,  and  false  or  anonymous  accusa- 
tions were  not  to  be  allowed.  His  successor,  Hadrian, 
in  his  rescript  followed  the  same  lines.  The  reported 
rescript  of  Antoninus  Pius  is  probably  spurious,  but 


PERSECUTIONS  UNDER  ''GOOD  EMPERORS"    39 

his  attitude  seems  to  have  been  a  more  rigorous  en- 
forcement of  the  laws  against  anonymous  and  fanat- 
ical accusations. 

Marcus  Aurelius,  in  consistency  with  his  firmness 
and  high  conscientious  scruples,  enforced  the  law  more 
severely,  and  by  new  edicts  encouraged  bringing  the 
Christians  before  the  tribunals. 

The  martyrdoms  of  Symeon,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem, 
and  Ignatius,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  took  place  in  the 
reign  of  Trajan.  Justin  Martyr  and  Polycarp,  Bishop 
of  Smyrna,  were  martyred  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus 
Pius. 

During  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  occured 
the  terrible  persecutions  of  Lyons  and  Vienne.  It 
is  estimated  that  at  least  one  hundred  must  have 
been  martyred  during  his  reign;  more  than  in  any 
previous  one. 

It  is  to  be  remembered,  however,  that  these  perse- 
cutions were  not  due  to  religious  differences,  to 
bigotry  and  fanatical  intolerance,  but  solely  (as  far  as 
the  Emperors  of  the  second  century  were  concerned) 
to  imperial  policy  and  the  desire  to  uphold  the  in- 
tegrity of  the  Empire,  regarding  Christianity  as 
"sheer  obstinacy."  Indeed  Melito,  Bishop  of  Sardis 
in  the  closing  years  of  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius, 
mentions  177  a.d.  the  new  decrees  as  causing  much 
suffering  in  Asia. 

It  was  this  imperial  policy  that  the  Apologists, 
who  began  to  write  in  the  reigns  of  Hadrian  and  Mar- 
cus Aurelius,  recognized  and  tried  to  meet  in  their 


40  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

writings.  It  also  explains  the  attitude  of  Marcus 
Aurelius,  one  of  the  noblest,  most  conscientious  and 
most  philosophical  of  all  the  Roman  Emperors.  From 
the  point  of  view  of  a  conscientious  Emperor,  the 
Christians  were  not  merely  the  holders  of  a  different 
or  even  erroneous  religion,  for,  as  such,  they  might 
have  been  pitied  or  dismissed  with  contempt;  but 
they  were  enemies  to  the  integrity  and  unity  of  the 
Empire,  and  disturbers  of  public  peace  and  order; 
and  any  Emperor  who  cared  for  these  things  must 
destroy  them. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Addis,  W.  E. —  Christianity  and  the  Roman  Empire.  Lond., 
1893. 

Hardy,  E.  G. —  Christianity  and  Roman  Government.  Lond., 
1894. 

Hardy,  E.  G. —  (Later  edition.)  Studies  in  Roman  History. 
Lond.,  1906. 

Hardy,  E.  G. —  Pliny's  Correspondence  with  Trajan.     Lond., 


l! 


Renan,  E. —  Marcus  Aurelius. 

See  al.so  Bibliography,  A  I,  §8,  and  A  III,  §2. 


§3.  The  Apostolic  Fathers 

The  earliest  writings  outside  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment are  the  so-called  Apostolic  Fathers;  formerly 
numbering  seven,  now  numbering  nine. 

I.  The  Didache,  or  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apos- 
tles, c.  70-165  A.D. 


THE  APOSTOLIC  FATHERS  41 

2.  The  Epistle  of  Clement  of  Rome  to  the  Cor- 
inthians, c.  96  A.D.,  to  which  is  appended  — 

3.  A  Homily,  or  discourse,  formerly  called  the  Sec- 
ond Epistle  of  Clement,  but  now  believed  not  to  be 
his,  although  it  is  an  early  composition  written  pro- 
bably before  140  a.d.  at  Rome  or  Corinth. 

4.  "The  Shepherd,"  by  Hermas,  c.  97  a.d,,  by  a 
member  of  the  Church  at  Rome,  one  of  the  early 
Prophets.  It  was  probably  completed  in  its  present 
form  by  Hermas,  a  brother  of  Pius,  Bishop  of  Rome, 
c.  141-154  A.D. 

5.  The  Epistle  of  Barnabas,  so-called,  written 
shortly  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  to  which 
it  refers. 

6.  The  Epistles  of  Ignatius,  Bishop  of  Antioch, 
106-115  A.D.  The  Epistles  to  various  Churches  and 
one  to  Polycarp  of  Smyrna,  have  come  down  to 
us  in  three  recensions:  a  longer  form,  comprising 
twelve  Epistles  in  Greek  and  three  in  Latin;  a 
shorter  Greek  form,  containing  Epistles  to  six 
Churches  and  one  to  Polycarp,  edited  by  Voss  and 
called  the  Vossian  Recension;  and  a  still  shorter 
Syriac  form  comprising  three  Epistles,  probably  ex- 
tracts from  the  originals,  edited  by  Cureton  and 
called  the  Curetonian  Recension.  The  shorter  Greek 
recension  is  generally  regarded  as  the  genuine  and 
original  form. 

7.  The  Epistle  of  Polycarp,  Bishop  of  Smyrna. 

8.  Papias,  Bishop  of  Hierapolis  in  Galatia ;  suffered 
martyrdom  under  Marcus  Aurelius,  c.  162  a.d.     He 

6 


42  THE' POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

compiled  a  book  of  traditions  and  anecdotes  of  which 
only  extracts  remain. 

9.  The  Epistle  to  Diognetus,  by  an  anonymous 
writer. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Farrar,  F.  W. —  Lives  of  the  Fathers. 

Hall,  E.  H. —  Papias  and  his  Contemporaries.     Boston,  1899. 

Lightfoot,  J.  B. —  Essays  on  Supernatural  Religion. 

Didache  —  Editions  by  Hitchcock  and  Brown,  N.  Y.,  1885.  C. 
Taylor,  Camb.,  1886.  Ph.  Schaff,  N.  Y.,  1889.  Spence,  Lond., 
1885.     Harnack,  Leipzig,  1884.     C.  H.  Hole,  Lond.,  1894. 

Hastings,  Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 

See  also  General  Bibliography  V. 

§4.  The  Christian  Apologists 

There  was  a  remarkable  literary  fertility  in  Asia 
Minor  during  the  middle  of  the  second  century.  It 
is  the  great  age  of  Christian  Apologetics,  the  period 
of  hope  and  fear,  which  coincides  with  the  age  of  the 
Antonines,  the  "Good  Emperors"  of  the  first  eighty 
years  of  the  second  century.  These  writings  were 
mainly  under  Marcus  Aurelius,  a  wise  and  good  emper- 
or, yet  understanding  Christianity  so  little  that  it  seemed 
to  him  inconceivable  that  such  a  religion  could  be 
worth  study  or  that  it  could  be  expected  to  alter  the 
laws  of  the  Empire  in  its  behalf.  In  vain  Christians 
tried  to  get  even  a  hearing ;  they  found  that  they 
were  dealing  with  a  statesman  who  was  all  the  more 
inflexible  because  he  was  so  conscientious.  Peace  re- 
turned to  the  Church  after  his  death,  180  a.d.  His 
son  Commodus,    one  of  the   worst   emperors   Rome 


THE  CHRISTIAN  APOLOGISTS  43 

had  ever  known,  did  not  enforce  the  laws  against  the 
Christians,  but  it  was  just  because  he  did  not  care 
for  the  integrity  of  the  Empire. 

The  Christian  Apologists  were  the  first  Christian 
theologians,  for  their  defense  of  Christianity  was  the 
presentation  of  it  as  a  philosophy  containing  the 
highest  wisdom  and  truth.  The  writings  of  many  of 
the  earliest  Apologists  are  lost,  but  their  names,  and 
some  references  to  their  works  have  come  down  to 
us.     Of  these  we  mention  :  — 

1.  Quadratus  of  Athens  addressed  an  Apology  to 
Hadrian  in  which  he  refers  to  some  whom  Jesus  had 
cured  or  raised  from  the  dead,  as  living  until  his  time. 
(Euseb.  H.  E.,  iv:  3.) 

2.  The  Apology  by  Marcianus  Aristides,  ad- 
dressed to  Antoninus  Pius.  It  was  supposed  only 
fragments  remained,  until  the  discovery  of  a  Syriac 
translation,  1889  a.d.,  in  the  convent  of  St.  Cathe- 
rine at  Mt.  Sinai,  where  Tischendorf  discovered  the 
famous  fourth  century  manuscript  of  the  Bible.  The 
work  is  also  noteworthy  as  containing  the  earliest 
form  of  the  Apostles'  Creed. 

3.  Justin  the  Martyr,  a  Greek  born  in  Palestine, 
educated  in  the  highest  schools  of  philosophy. 
Moved  by  the  fortitude  of  Christians  in  enduring 
martyrdom,  his  conversion  presents  a  type  of  the 
world  of  educated  thought  in  the  second  century. 
As  a  Christian  he  still  wore  his  philosopher's  cloak. 
(Euseb.  H.  E.,  iv:  11-18.)  At  Ephesus  he  held  his 
famous  Dialogue  with  Trypho,  the  Jew,  and  wrote 


44  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

his  Apology,  and  a  so-called  second  one,  a  supple- 
ment to  the  first,  addressed  to  Antoninus  Pius,  about 
152  A.D.,  which  probably  never  reached  him. 

4.  Tatian,  a  Greek  Sophist,  was  born  in  Meso- 
potamia. He  went  to  Rome  and  was  won  to 
Christianity  by  Justin  Martyr  about  150  a.d.  He 
travelled  widely  and  was  well  acquainted  with  all 
forms  of  heathen  philosophy  and  religion.  His  work 
is  called  a  Discourse  to  the  Greeks.  Of  great  impor- 
tance for  the  history  of  the  canon  and  of  exegesis 
is  his  Diatesseron,  or  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels, 
of  which  we  now  have  the  full  text.  (Cambridge 
Texts  and  Studies.) 

5.  Aristo  of  Pella  is  reputed  to  be  the  author  of 
an  Apology  written  at  this  time  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue  between  a  Jewish  Christian,  Jason,  and  an 
Alexandrian  Jew,  Papiscus. 

6.  Miltiades  of  Asia  Minor,  c.  165  a.d.,  presented 
an  Apology  to  Marcus  Aurelius.  (Euseb.  H.  E., 
v:  17.) 

7.  Claudius  ApoUinaris,  Bishop  of  Hierapolis, 
about  170  A.D.,  addressed  one  to  Marcus  Aurelius,  of 
which  perhaps  only  a  line  remains.  (Euseb.  H.  E., 
iv:  16.) 

8.  Melito,  Bishop  of  Sardis,  in  the  reign  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  speaks  of  the  "new  decrees"  against  the 
Christians.  He  was  one  of  the  great  lights  of  the 
Church  in  Asia  Minor.  Eusebius  names  over  twenty 
of  his  writings  of  very  great  value,  but  of  which, 
unfortunately,  we  possess  only  fragments. 


EBIONISM  AND  PSEUDO-CLEMENTINE  SYSTEM  45 

9.  Athenagoras,  like  Aristides,  an  Athenian  philos- 
opher, a  few  years  later  addressed  one  to  the  same 
emperor.     Of  his  work  we  have  the  entire  text. 

10.  Theophilus,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  in  the  early 
years  of  Commodus,  c.  180  a.d.,  wrote  a  treatise  in 
three  books  addressed  to  a  certain  Autolycus  in 
answer  to  pagan  objectors. 

11.  The  Octavius  of  Minucius  Felix,  a  dialogue 
between  a  cultured  heathen  and  an  intelligent  and 
philosophical  Christian,  belongs  probably  to  the 
close  of  this  period,  though  some  scholars  place  it 
after  Tertullian,  as  it  is  evident  one  used  the  other. 

The  effect  of  all  this  apologetic  literature  was 
instructive  and  strengthening  to  the  Christians,  but 
seems  to  have  had  little  effect  on  the  persecutions  or 
the  persecutors.  The  Church's  conquest  was  gained 
not  by  apologetics  and  theology,  but  by  the  moral 
and  spiritual  power  evidenced  in  the  virtues  of  the 
Christians  themselves,  who  lived  as  heroes  in  that  he- 
roic age.  Thus  men  were  drawn  to  Christ,  and  thus 
Christ  conquered  Rome  and  will  conquer  the  world. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Watson,  F. —  Defenders  of  the  Faith. 

Purves,  G.  T. —  Testimony  of  Justin  Martyr  to  Early  Chris- 
tianity.    N.  Y.,  1889. 

Harris,  J.  Rendell  —  The  Apology  of  Aristides.  Camb.  Texts 
and  Studies.    Edited  by  J.  A.  Robinson,  Vol.  I.    Camb.,  1891. 

§5.  Ebionism  and  the  Pseudo-Clementine  System 

Under  this  head  may  be  grouped  the  various  forms 
of  Jewish  Christianity  which  held  aloof  from  the  uni- 


46  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

versalism  of  the  Gospel.  Not  content  with  observing 
the  Mosaic  law  themselves,  they  maintained  that  it 
was  binding  on  all  Christians,  making  Christian- 
ity merely  a  reformed,  not  a  transformed  Judaism. 
There  were  many  of  this  sect  of  varying  degrees  of 
strictness — Essenes,  Nazarenes,  Elkesaites — all  exalt- 
ing Judaism  at  the  expense  of  Christianity. 

The  word  Ebionites  comes  from  the  Hebrew, 
meaning  poor  and  humble,  for  there  is  no  evidence  of 
a  founder  named  Ebion,  as  some  have  supposed.  The 
destruction  of  the  temple  and  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
consequent  cessation  of  the  temple  worship,  led  to  the 
gradual  disappearance  of  non-sectarian  Jewish  Chris- 
tianity, and  its  amalgamation  with  Gentile  Christian- 
ity. The  remnant  of  Jewish  Christianity  which  con- 
tinued to  cling  to  its  own  peculiar  principles  and 
practices  remained  stagnant  in  these  heretical  sects, 
which  later  became  permeated  with  Gnostic  elements 
and  developed  into  the  comprehensive  Pseudo- 
Clementine  system,  based  on  writings  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  second  century  called  the  Homilies  and 
Recognitions,  attributed  to  Clement  of  Rome;  and 
emerged  as  a  recognized  Gnostic  sect  under  Cerin- 
thus. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Sorley,  W.  R. — Jewish  Christians  and  Judaism.    Camb.,  1881. 

Hort,  F.  J.  A. —  Clementine  Recognitions.     Lond.,  1901. 

Hort,  F.  J.  A. —  Judaistic  Christianity.     Lond.,  1904. 

Dorner,  J.  A. — History  of  the  Doctrine  of  Person  of  Christ. 
Div.  I,  Vol.  I,  pp.  1 18-217.  Five  volumes  in  tv^^o  divisions. 
Edinb.,  1861-1863. 


GNOSTICISM  47 


§6.  Gnosticism 

This  period  saw  the  rise  of  three  great  systems  of 
religious  thought  which  threatened  for  a  time  to 
break  up  the  unity  of  the  Church  and  the  integrity  of 
the  Christian  faith,  but  in  the  end  proved  to  be  in- 
fluences of  the  strongest  kind  to  strengthen  that  unity 
and  to  establish  that  integrity.  These  three  were 
the  systems  of  the  Gnostics,  of  Marcion,  and  of 
Montanus. 

Gnosticism  was  the  mightiest,  most  dangerous  and 
most  influential  system,  and  threatened  to  sweep 
Christianity  off  its  feet  and  to  work  more  havoc  than 
the  bitterest  persecution  from  without. 

Ebionism  was  the  result  of  the  attempt  to  incorpo- 
rate into  Christianity  the  narrow  formalism  of  Juda- 
ism. Gnosticism  was  the  result  of  the  attempt  to 
blend  with  Christianity  the  religious  notions  of  pagan 
mythology,  cosmology  and  philosophy.  It  was  com- 
paratively easy  to  keep  out  Ebionism  and  its  Gnostic 
tendencies,  but  the  Gnosticism  of  Gentile  Chris- 
tianity was  a  much  more  difficult  and  insidious  foe. 

The  struggle  strengthened  the  Church,  however,  by 
bringing  it  to  a  deeper  consciousness  of  its  own  faith 
and  helping  it  to  realize  its  own  theology  and  organi- 
zation. The  Catholic  Church,  in  the  full  strength  of 
its  complete  organization,  was  the  form  in  which 
Christianity  emerged  victorious  from  this  mighty 
struggle. 

The  problems  were  the  origin  of  the  world  and  of 


48  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

evil,  and  the  process,  means  and  end  of  the  world's 
development  and  redemption.  The  Gnostic  theory  of 
the  world's  origin  was  borrowed  largely  from  heathen 
sources  colored  by  Judaism,  and  the  theory  of  re- 
demption was  borrowed  from  Christianity,  allego- 
rized in  some  cases  almost  beyond  recognition.  At 
the  basis  lay  the  dualism  of  God  and  Matter;  the 
latter  either  non-substantial  or  a  hostile  and  vio- 
lently opposed  principle. 

The  principle  of  emanation,  or  of  evolution,  in  a 
sense  of  divine  essences  or  aeons  as  intermediaries, 
is  used  to  explain  the  processes  of  the  creation,  de- 
velopment and  redemption  of  the  world. 

There  is  posited  a  world  of  light,  "the  Pleroma," 
and  three  phases  of  existence,  the  Pneumatic,  or  life 
of  the  Spirit,  the  Psychic,  or  Animal  Soul,  and  the 
Hylic,  or  Carnal  and  Material  Body. 

One  of  the  lowest  and  weakest  of  the  aeons  is  the 
Demiurge  or  Creator,  for  creation  is  the  first  step 
toward  redemption,  which  is  accomplished  by  a  divine 
Saviour,  through  gnosis  (knowledge)  and  asceti- 
cism. 

Humanity  is  divided  into  three  classes  according 
to  which  one  of  the  three  elements  predominates  in 
each  man: — The  Pneumatic,  who  are  capable  of  and 
receive  the  Gnosis ;  the  Psychic,  who  are  capable 
only  of  faith ;  and  the  Hylic,  subject  to,  and  under 
the  control  of  matter. 

Redemption  consists  of  the  conquest  and  exclusion 
of  matter,  and  is  accomplished  through  knowledge  and 


GNOSTICISM  49 


asceticism.  It  is  an  artificial  or  mechanical,  almost 
chemical  process,  rather  than  an  ethical  one. 

Sanctification  is  a  physical  struggle  with  matter, 
and  the  withholding  from  material  enjoyments  or 
from  anything  that  acknowledges  or  confers  power 
upon  matter.  The  Gnostics  were  therefore  originally 
very  strict  in  their  moral  discipline,  but  in  some 
cases  went  to  the  other  extreme  of  licentiousness  in 
order  to  show  their  contempt  of  the  body  and  dis- 
regard of  the  laws  of  the  Demiurge,  thus  denying  the 
responsibility  of  the  soul  for  the  weakness  of  the 
flesh. 

The  movement  resulted  in  the  boldest  and  most 
brilliant  syncretism  the  world  has  ever  seen.  Its 
attitude  toward  Scripture  and  the  Gospels  was  varied. 
Allegorizing  interpretations  were  based  upon  it;  or 
it  was  denied,  as  having  been  falsified  by  the  Apos- 
tles, and  remodelled  writings  were  substituted  and 
new  pseudo-literature  issued. 

Esoteric  teaching  by  verbal  tradition,  however, 
played  a  more  important  and  more  authoritative  part 
than  the  Scriptures. 

They  had  their  own  Scriptures,  Gospels,  Epistles 
and  Treatises,  Psalms  and  Prophets,  few  of  which  have 
come  down  to  us,  although  some  are  coming  to  light 
in  Coptic  versions,  and  some  are  produced  from  the 
descriptions  and  quotations  given  by  the  early  Fathers, 
especially  Irenseus,  Hippolytus,  Epiphanius,  Tertul- 
lian,  Theodoret,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  Origen. 
In  opposition  to   them  the  Church  maintained  the 


50  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  A  GE 

solidarity  of  the  two  Testaments,  the  authority  of  its 
own  Gospels  and  Epistles,  the  reality  of  the  Gospel 
story,  the  authority  of  the  moral  code,  and  the  re- 
demption and  sanctity  of  the  human  body  against  a 
perverse  asceticism  on  the  one  hand,  and  a  lawless 
libertinism  on  the  other. 

The  bestiality  of  the  forces  of  Nature  and  the  lack 
of  any  moral  discrimination  in  their  action,  together 
with  the  general  working  of  law  without  regard  to 
particular  instances,  seemed  to  give  evidence  of  a 
Deity  deficient  in  knowledge,  or  in  love,  or  in  power, 
or  perhaps  in  all  three.  Above  this  world-power, 
therefore,  the  Gnostic  posited  the  Infinite  Goodness, 
manifesting  Himself  in  love  and  providing  a  means 
of  redemption. 

The  Jehovah  of  Israel,  therefore,  was  made  respon- 
sible for  Nature  and  the  Law,  while  the  God  of  the 
Gospel  revealed  in  Jesus  Christ  the  goodness  and 
absolute  perfection  of  the  True  God.  Yet  the  Demi- 
urge, Jehovah,  must  be  explained.  Marcion  did  not 
try  to  solve  the  problem,  but  the  Gnostics  brought  in 
their  series  of  emanations  and  aeons. 

Although  Gnosticism  included  a  great  variety  of 
sects,  there  are  certain  points  on  which  they  all  agreed, 
but  there  are  others  on  which  their  divergences  were 
considerable.  Neander  makes  three  classes,  as  fol- 
lows : — 

First,  Gnostic  sects,  which,  attaching  themselves  to 
Judaism,  held  to  a  gradual  development  of  the  Theoc- 
racy among  mankind  from  an  original  foundation  of 


GNOSTICISM  51 


it  in  the  race.  Their  great  teachers  were  Cerinthus, 
Basilides,  Valentinus  (who  was  the  most  profound, 
talented  and  imaginative  of  all  the  Gnostics),  Hcra- 
cleon  and  Bardesanes. 

Second,  Gnostic  sects  opposed  to  Judaism  and  in- 
clining to  the  side  of  the  Pagan  element: — The  Oph- 
ites, Cainites,  Carpocratians,  Prodicians,  Nicolaitans 
and  Simonians;  all  antinomian  sects  tending  to  licen- 
tiousness and  libertinism. 

Third,  Gnostic  sects  opposed  to  Judaism  but  striv- 
ing to  hold  Christianity  in  what  they  conceived  to  be 
its  purity  and  absolute  independence: — Saturninus, 
Tatian  and  the  Encratites  (rigorous  ascetics),  and 
Marcion.  Owing,  however,  to  the  greater  impor- 
tance and  peculiarly  characteristic  position  and  in- 
fluence of  Marcion,  Harnack  and  later  scholars  con- 
sider him  in  a  separate  class. 

This  classification  is  perhaps  on  the  whole  the 
most  logical  and  helpful  one.  If  we  followed  the 
chronological  order,  which,  however,  is  very  difficult 
to  determine,  it  would  appear  that  the  earliest  Gnos- 
tics took  hardly  any  account  of  Christianity,  and 
knew  little  about  the  life  of  Jesus,  but  that  Christian 
ideas  and  beliefs  gradually  invaded  the  Gnostic 
philosophy  and  brought  it  nearer  and  nearer  to  the 
standards  of  the  Catholic  faith.  How  far  Christian- 
ity was  in  its  turn  influenced  by  Gnosticism  is  a  sub- 
ject on  which  there  is  a  wide  divergence  of  opinion. 
The  origin  of  Gnosticism  was  traced  by  the  early 
Fathers  to  Simon  of  Samaria  (Acts  viii :  9  ff.),  though 


52  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  A  GE 

by  some  it  was  traced  back  to  Cleobius  and  Dosi- 
theus,  earlier  than  either  Simon  or  Christianity. 
Euseb.  H.  E.,  iv:  22.  Iren.  i:  23.  Pseudo-Tert. 
De  Praescr.  46  (Duchesne,  p.  116). 

Pfleiderer  declares  that  it  was  a  religion  itself,  and 
did  not  arise  originally  either  from  Christianity  or 
from  Greek  philosophy  (Christian  Origins,  p.  249). 
This  may  account  for  traces  of  what  seem  like 
Gnostic  ideas  in  some  of  the  Epistles,  e.g.  Colossians. 
It  may  well  have  been  earlier  than  Christianity, 
but  assimilated  Christianity  as  soon  as  it  came  in 
contact  with  it,  and  undoubtedly  received  fresh  in- 
spiration and  vitality  from  it. 

The  most  brilliant  period  in  its  history  was  the 
second  century,  commencing  with  the  age  of  Hadrian. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  there  was 
scarcely  one  of  the  more  cultivated  congregations 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  Roman  Empire  that  was 
not  affected  by  it.  Yet  we  never  find  the  number  of 
regular  Gnostic  congregations  exceeding  that  of  the 
Catholic.  Soon  after  this,  the  season  of  decay  sets 
in.  The  only  complete  Gnostic  production  which 
has  been  preserved,  the  Pistis  Sophia,  belongs  to  the 
third  century. 

Its  productive  power  was  exhausted;  and  while  on 
the  one  hand  it  was  driven  back  by  the  Catholic  ec- 
clesiastical development,  on  the  other  hand  it  was 
outrun  by  Marcionism  and  by  Manichaeism. 


MARCION  AND  HIS  CHURCHES  53 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Neander,  A. —  Church  History.     Vol.  I,  pp.  336-458. 

Gwatkin,  H.  M. —  Early  Church.     Vol.  II,  pp.  19-72. 

King,  C.  W. — The  Gnostics  and  their  Remains.     Lond.,  1887. 

Mansel,  H.  L. — The  Gnostic  Heresies.     Lond.,  1875. 

Hatch,  E. — Influence  of  Greek  Ideas  on  Christianity.  4th 
ed.     Lond.,  1892. 

Bright,  Wm. — Waymarks  in  Church  History.  Chap.  II. 
Lond.,  1894. 

Baur. — First  Three  Centuries.     Vol.  I,  pp.  185-245. 

Harnack.  A. — History  of  Dogma.     Vol.  I,  pp.  222-266. 

Dorner,  J.  A. — Person  of  Christ.     Vol.  I,  pp.  218-252. 

Meed,  G.  R.  S. — Pistis  Sophia,  the  Gnostic  Gospel.  Lend., 
1896. 

§7.  Marcion  and  His  Churches 

Marcion  was  a  wealthy  shipmaster  who  was  born 
in  Sinope  in  Pontus,  Asia  Minor,  and  about  140  a.d. 
went  to  Rome  where,  probably,  he  was  converted  to 
Christianity,  as  he  at  once  made  over  his  fortune  to 
the  Church.  The  story  of  his  being  the  son  of  the 
Bishop  of  Sinope  and  excommunicated  by  his 
father  for  the  seduction  of  a  young  girl,  is  a  later 
tradition  inspired,  probably,  by  the  hatred  he  stirred 
up  against  himself,  as  it  is  utterly  inconsistent  with 
his  life  and  teachings  at  Rome.  He  threw  himself 
whole-souled  into  the  moral  life  and  practical  ethics 
of  the  Gospel,  and,  like  an  earlier  Luther  and  Augus- 
tine, followed  the  teachings  of  St.  Paul.  Indeed,  he 
soon  came  to  regard  St.  Paul  as  the  only  truly  repre- 
sentative Apostle  of  Christ,  and  was  the  first  to  lay 
down  a  distinct  canon  of  New  Testament  Scriptures 


54  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  A  GE 

in  which  he  included  only  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke, 
with  many  changes  and  omissions  (especially  of  the 
first  three  chapters)  and  ten  Epistles  of  St.  Paul, 
omitting  the  Pastoral  Epistles. 

Deeply  impressed  with  the  Pauline  antithesis  of 
the  Law  and  the  Gospel,  he  developed  a  system  of 
antitheses  as  the  basis  of  his  conception  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  carried  to  an  extreme  the  Pauline  doctrine 
of  Free  Grace  and  Justification  by  Faith.  Empha- 
sizing the  antitheses  between  Faith  and  Law,  Grace 
and  Justice,  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New  Cove- 
nant, he  saw  a  complete  antagonism  between  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  Gospel.  He  refused  to  employ 
the  allegorical  method,  which  was  the  favorite  method 
of  rationalizing  the  Old  Testament,  especially  among 
the  Gnostics,  and  interpreted  it  literally.  Thus  he 
found  in  the  Old  Testament  a  just  but  merciless  God, 
the  Creator,  whose  Messiah  was  a  War  Prince. 

Jesus,  on  the  other  hand,  revealed  the  good  and 
beneficent  God,  and  owed  nothing  to  the  Creator,  as 
he  bore  only  the  appearance  of  a  physical  body  (Doce- 
tism).  He  saw  no  preparation  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment for  the  revelation  in  the  New.  Jesus,  he  main- 
tained, came  suddenly  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius, 
without  birth  or  growth,  and  with  an  absolutely  new 
revelation  for  which  nothing  in  the  previous  history  of 
the  world  had  prepared  the  way.  His  doctrine,  founded 
upon  Docetism,  led  up  to  Dualism,  like  that  of  the 
Gnostics,  though  starting  out  from  different  premises 
and,  unlike  them,  rejecting  Allegory,  Gnosis,  which 


MARCION  AND  HIS  CHURCHES  55 

he  regarded  as  inferior  to  Faith,  and  esoteric  teach- 
ing, making  all  teaching  public;  even  allowing  cate- 
chumens to  be  present  at  the  Holy  Communion. 
Hence  he  cannot  be  classed  strictly  with  the  Gnos- 
tics, but  stands  by  himself.  He  attempted  to  set 
aside  the  Old  Testament  foundations  of  Christianity, 
to  purify  tradition  and  to  reform  Christendom  on  the 
basis  of  the  Pauline  Gospel.  After  the  failure  of  his 
attempts  to  reform  the  Church,  he  founded  Churches 
of  his  own,  separating  from  the  Church  in  Rome, 
144  A.D.  (when  his  money  was  returned  to  him), 
though  he  still  remained  there,  apparently,  until  his 
death,  perhaps  twenty  or  twenty-five  years  later. 
His  activity  and  influence  were  enormous,  and  he  had 
many  followers.  He  made  moral  conduct  the  basis 
of  his  teaching,  and  theology  secondary.  He  founded 
his  Churches  on  brotherly  equality,  absence  of  cere- 
monial and  strict  ascetic  discipline.  Nearly  all  the 
early  Fathers  wrote  against  him.  His  use  of  the 
New  Testament  showed  the  Church  the  importance 
of  an  authoritative  Canon  of  Scripture.  His  fol- 
lowers were  noted  for  their  moral  earnestness  and 
practical  tendency.  They  made  many  changes  in  his 
system  but  reverenced  him  in  the  highest  manner 
as  the  most  Holy  Master.  His  most  famous  dis- 
ciple was  Apelles,  who  survived  him  about  twenty 
years. 

At  the  Council  of  692  a.d.  it  was  declared  that  Mar- 
cionites,  Manichaeans  and  Valentinians  must  be  bap- 
tized anew. 


56  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Harnack,  A. — History  of  Dogma.     I,  pp.  266-286. 
Jackson,  F.  J.  Foakes.— Christian  Difficulties  of  the  Second 
and  Twentieth  Centuries.    (A  Study  of  Marcion.)    Camb.,  1900. 

On  the  comparison  of  Marcion's  Gospel  with  St.  Luke's,  see — 
Sanday. — Gospels  in  the  Second  Century,     pp.  204  fE. 
Westcott. — Canon  of  the  New  Testament,     pp.  345  ff. 
Salmon. — Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,     pp.  242  ff. 

§8.    MONTANUS    AND    MONTANISM 

This  also  was  a  reform  movement  and  had  its  rise  in 
Asia  Minor,  its  leader,  Montanus,  being  a  Phrygian. 
Its  origin  and  nature  are  to  be  explained  by  the  con- 
ditions and  experiences  of  the  Church  in  Asia  Minor 
contending  against  Gnostics  and  Gnosticizing  ten- 
dencies. It  took  its  stand  on  the  reality  and  literal- 
ness  of  the  doctrines  and  facts  of  the  Scriptures ;  seek- 
ing to  revive  and  to  continue  the  belief  in  the  speedy 
second  coming  of  Christ,  and  the  spiritual  ministry 
of  the  Church.  It  therefore  laid  down  a  severely 
ascetic  discipline,  accused  the  Church  of  becoming 
worldly,  and  opposed  to  the  growing  hierarchical 
organization  of  the  Church  the  rights  of  the  laity 
and  a  line  of  spiritually  inspired  prophets.  A  sort  of 
second  century  Quaker  movement. 

About  the  middle  of  the  second  century  Montanus 
appeared  at  Pepuza  in  Phrygia  and  declared  himself 
to  be  the  Paraclete  who  fulfilled  the  promise  of  Jesus 
(St.  John  xiv:  16;  xvi:  7),  and  proclaimed  the  speedy 
second  coming  of  Christ  to  Pepuza  as  the  New  Jerusa- 


MONTANUS  AND  MONTANISM  57 

lem.  He  ordered  stricter  asceticism,  increased  and 
regular  fasting,  virginity,  and  a  discipline  of  re- 
pentance with  no  readmission  of  the  lapsed.  The 
movement  spread  rapidly.  Before  the  end  of  the  year 
170,  several  synods,  the  earliest  of  which  we  have  any 
record,  had  been  held  against  the  Montanists,  re- 
sulting in  their  exclusion  from  the  Catholic  Church. 
Montanus  then  organized  his  followers  into  a  sep- 
arate community. 

Thus  the  main  effort  of  Montanus  was  to  form  a 
completely  new  organization  of  Christendom,  a  new 
undivided  Christian  Commonwealth  separated  from 
the  world.  Whole  communities  became  followers  of 
the  new  prophet  in  Phrygia  and  Asia.  But  the  idea 
of  a  new  organization  died  out,  and  Montanism  in 
the  clear  light  of  history  appears  rather  as  a  reli- 
gious movement  already  deadened  though  still  very 
powerful. 

Even  when  the  General  Councils  declared  heretical 
baptism  valid  if  given  properly,  in  the  name  of  the 
Trinity,  the  Montanist  baptism  was  excluded  because 
the  Paraclete  of  Montanus  could  not  be  recognized  as 
the  Holy  Spirit  of  the  Trinity. 

Among  the  Montanists  those  especially  inspired 
were  reverenced  as  prophets ;  and  two  prophetesses, 
Prisca  (or  Priscilla)  and  Maximilla,  were  prominent. 
The  martyrs  of  Lyons,  some  of  whom  had  come  from 
Phrygia,  wrote  from  prison  (177  a.d.)  a  letter  in 
their  favor  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  which  was  carried 
by  Irenseus;  but  Praxeas,  a  confessor  of  Asia  Minor, 
7 


58  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

turned  the  feeling  against  them  and  secured  their 
condemnation. 

Maximilla  died  i8o  a.d.,  and  Montanu  sand  Prisca 
before  that.  After  them  prophecy  ceased,  but  the 
movement  grew.  From  Rome  it  spread  to  North 
Africa  about  200  a.d.,  where  Tertullian,  a  little  later, 
joined  the  movement,  and  to  his  writings  we  owe 
much  of  our  knowledge  of  their  life  and  teach- 
ings. 

The  supreme  authority  of  their  prophets  and  the 
emphasis  laid  on  the  universal  priesthood  of  all 
Christians,  tended  strongly  to  the  strengthening  of 
the  constitutional  form  of  the  Episcopate,  and  to  an 
objective  standard  in  a  fixed  canon  of  Scripture  and 
a  definite  rule  of  faith. 

The  early  apologists,  like  Claudius  Apollinaris  and 
Miltiades,  and  perhaps  Melito,  included  them  in  their 
opposition  to  the  enemies  of  the  Church.  On 
account  of  their  use  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  and  the 
Apocalypse  there  arose  a  definite  sect  in  opposition 
called  the  Alogi. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

De  Soyres,  J. — Montanism  and  the  Primitive  Church.  Camb., 
1878. 

Harnack,  A. — History  of  Dogma.     II,  pp.  94-111. 

Cunningham,  Wm. — Churches  of  Asia.  Lond.,  1880.  (Appen- 
dix contains  valuable  extracts  from  writers  of  the  second  cen- 
tury.) 

Neander,  A. — Antignostikus. 


CONSOLIDA  TION  OF  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  59 

§9.  The  Consolidation  of  the  Catholic  Church 

Whatever  may  be  said  about  the  origin  of  the 
Episcopate,  this  was  the  period  of  its  complete  and 
universal  establishment.  Its  strength  and  importance 
were  recognized  as  due  largely  to  the  conditions  we 
have  just  been  considering:  (i)  Need  of  unity j 
(2)  A  single  representative  in  correspondence  and 
hospitality;  (3)  For  doctrinal  authority;  (4)  In 
the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist.  Schaff  says:  "It 
should  be  admitted  that  the  tendency  toward  an  epis- 
copal concentration  of  presbyteral  power  may  be 
traced  to  the  close  of  the  Apostolic  Age."  And  "It 
is  a  matter  of  fact  that  the  episcopal  form  of  govern- 
ment was  universally  established  in  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Churches  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  Even  early  heretical  sects  like  the  Ebion- 
ites  were  organized  on  this  plan ;  and  the  later  ones, 
Novatians  and  Donatists,  did  not  depart  from  it." — 
(Schaff  I,  p.  494 ;  II,  p.  144.)  The  whole  Church  spirit 
of  the  age  tended  toward  centralization.  Everywhere 
the  demand  was  felt  for  compact,  solid  unity.  In  the 
face  of  the  persecutions,  heresies  and  schisms,  the 
preservation  of  the  Church  depended  upon  it.  Such 
a  unity  existed  in  the  bishops.  The  Episcopate  was 
not  created  but  evolved  by  these  conditions:  it  lay 
involved  in  the  original  constitution  of  the  Church ;  it 
was  developed  and  strengthened  by  these  conditions 
and  the  way  in  which  it  met  them.  Lindsay  admits 
that  what  he  calls  the  change  from  the  twofold  to  the 


60  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

threefold  ministry  did  not  come  by  any  sudden  altera- 
tion which  gave  rise  to  contentions,  but  came  so 
naturally  as  to  make  it  seem  that  there  was  no  change. 
The  significance  is  seen  in  the  relation  of  the  officials 
to  the  public  worship,  especially  the  Eucharist.  There 
could  not  be  a  collegiate  superintendence  of  the  Lord's 
Supper;  there  must  then  have  been  some  head  from 
the  beginning;  that  is,  a  threefold  organization. 

This  recognition  of  the  early,  manifest  and  open 
establishment  of  the  Episcopate  and  the  admission 
that  there  is  no  sign  of  change  from  an  earlier  order, 
or  of  any  contention  at  a  sudden  alteration,  removes 
the  oldest  and  strongest  arguments  against  the  early 
origin  of  the  Episcopate.  The  fact  that  we  have  no 
clear  description  of  it  as  a  settled  and  established 
order  in  the  New  Testament  is  not  by  itself  a  valid 
argument  against  it.  The  times  and  conditions  of 
the  New  Testament  were  opposed  to  anything  of  the 
sort.  But  the  threefold  order  of  Christ,  the  Twelve 
and  the  Seventy;  of  James,  the  Apostles  and  the 
Elders,  at  Jerusalem ;  of  the  Bishop,  Presbyters  and 
Deacons  in  the  Ignatian  Epistles,  shows  a  continu- 
ance of  official  form  and  order  by  whatever  name  the 
officers  may  be  called.  It  needed  only  the  conditions 
and  circumstances  of  the  second  century  to  bring  it 
out  and  to  develop  and  consolidate  it  into  the  unity 
and  episcopal  organization  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
Harnack  speaks  of  "the  uniform  constitutional  sys- 
tem, such  as  we  find  almost  everywhere  in  the  period 
after  Hadrian." 


CONSOLIDATION  OF  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  61 

The  best  evidence  for  the  existence  of  a  monarchical 
Episcopate  from  the  beginning,  is  the  fact  that  no- 
where is  to  be  found  the  least  trace  of  a  change  of 
organization.  The  position  of  the  single  bishop 
existed  from  the  beginning,  but  it  became  gradually 
more  conspicuous  as  the  needs  and  conditions  of  the 
time  led  to  the  placing  of  a  greater  emphasis  upon  it. 

The  following  facts  may  be  regarded  as  established : 
(i)  To  some  extent  in  the  earlier  period  the  words 
presbyter  and  bishop  were  synonymous;  i.e.  a  bishop 
may  be  called  a  presbyter,  but  it  does  not  follow  that 
every  presbyter  was  a  bishop,  for  if  so  there  would  be 
no  use  for  both  terms.  The  probability  is  that  bishop 
and  presbyter  are  not  the  same  office  nor  are  the 
names  absolutely  interchangeable ;  but  the  bishops  are 
chosen  from  the  presbyterate  for  a  special  work,  and 
while  retaining  their  high  position  and  honor  as 
presbyters  are  yet  known  also  by  a  special  title.  (2) 
In  each  community  the  authority  may  have  belonged 
originally  to  a  college  of  presbyter-bishops.  This 
does  not  mean  that  the  Episcopate  in  the  actual  sense 
of  the  term  may  have  been  plural,  because  in  each 
Church  the  college  of  presbyter-bishops  did  not  exer- 
cise an  independent  supreme  power  but  was  subject 
to  the  apostles  or  their  delegates.  (3)  When  the 
missionaries  left  and  the  prophetic  office  died  out, 
the  direction  fell  on  the  local  authority,  who  thus 
received  apostolic  succession.  This  local  superior 
authority,  of  apostolic  origin,  was  conferred  upon  a 
monarchical  bishop,  as  the  term    is   understood  to- 


62  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

day.  This  is  proved  by  the  case  of  Jerusalem,  where 
James,  not  one  of  the  Twelve,  held  the  first  place; 
and  by  the  Ignatian  Epistles. 

In  the  Didache  itinerant  preachers  are  termed 
apostles.  An  apostle  is  allowed  to  remain  only  one 
or  two  days;  if  he  tries  to  stay  longer  he  is  a  false 
prophet.  But  provision  is  made  for  his  settling  per- 
manently; in  which  case,  of  course,  he  would  be  the 
head  of  the  community.  In  other  communities  where 
no  mention  is  made  of  a  monarchical  Episcopate  until 
the  middle  of  the  second  century,  there  is  no  trace 
found  of  a  change  of  organization;  and  consequently 
no  valid  reason  to  suppose  that  it  did  not  already 
exist,  at  least  in  germ. 

Harnack  says,  "There  is  not  the  slightest  ground 
for  denying  the  application  to  the  earliest  period  of 
what  we  know  with  the  utmost  certainty  fiom  the 
time  of  the  Ignatian  Epistles  onward;  namely,  the 
Bishops,  Deacons  and  Presbyters,  were  purely  offi- 
cials of  the  individual  community." — (Constitution 
and  Law,  p.  238.) 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Harnack,  A. — History  of  Dogma.     II,  pp.  67-93. 

Harnack,  A. — Mission  and  Expansion  of  Christianity.  I,  pp. 
431-486. 

Harnack,  A. — Constitution  and  Law  of  the  Church.  (Cf.  pp. 
96-102,  and  Duchesne,  Early  History,  pp.  62-70.) 

Duchesne. — Early  History  of  the  Church,    pp.  40-105. 

Allen,  A.  V.  G. — Christian  Institutions,  pp.  5-136. 

Wordsworth,  John. — Ministry  of  Grace.  2nd  ed.    Lond.,  1903. 


THE  RULE  OF  FAITH  63 

Lindsay,  T.  M. — The  Church  and  the  Ministry  in  the  Early 
Centuries.     Lond.,  1903. 

Gore,  Charles. — Ministry  of  the  Christian  Church.  3rd  ed. 
Lond.,  1893. 

Hatch,  E. —  Organization  of  the  Early  Christian  Churches. 
Bampton  Lectures.     Lond.,  1880. 

Durrell,  J.  C.  V. — The  Historic  Church.     Camb.,  1906. 

Hooker,  Richard. —  Ecclesiastical  Polity.     Book  VIL 

Wordsworth,  Charles. —  Outlines  of  the  Christian  Ministry. 
Lond.,  1872. 

Cunningham,  John — The  Growth  of  the  Church.  Lond., 
1886. 

Sanday,  William. — Conception  of  Priesthood  in  the  Early 
Church.     2nd  ed.     N.  Y.,  1899. 

Lefroy,  WiUiam. — The  Christian  Ministry.  Lond.,  1890. 
"For  those  who  claim  to  exercise  sacerdotal  functions  and  to 
administer  sacerdotal  authority." 

Lowrie,  Walter — The  Church  and  its  Organization.  N.  Y., 
1904. 

Lowrie's  book  is  an  exposition  of  Sohm's  Kirchenrecht ; 
which  is  critically  considered  by  Hamack  in  the  last  half  of 
his  book  entitled  "  The  Law  and  Constitution  of  the  Church." 
This  latter  work  presents  the  latest  phase  of  the  development 
of  Harnack's  own  theory  as  set  forth  in  its  earlier  form  in  his 
"  History  of  Dogma  ;  "  later  in  "  The  Mission  and  Expansion," 
and  in  "  The  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  ;  "  and  last  in  "  The  Law 
and  Constitution." 

§10.  The  Rule  of  Faith 

The  second  of  the  three  great  institutions  of  the 
Church,  established  to  meet  the  dangers  and  con- 
fusion of  the  second  century,  was  the  Rule  of  Faith, 
later  and  traditionally  known  as  the  Apostles'  Creed. 
An  outline  of  the  doctrine  common  to  all  Churches, 
introduced  first  of  all  as  a  confession  of  faith  pro- 
fessed by  candidates  for  baptism,  obtained  currency 


64  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

at  a  very  early  date.  It  was  imparted  to  the  cate- 
chumen by  word  of  mouth  and  hence  written  records 
are  not  found  until  later.  Although  the  exact  form 
varied  somewhat  in  different  localities,  the  essential 
outline  was  the  same.  There  are  three  general  types : 
Italian,  North  African,  and  Western.  The  oldest 
and  simplest  was  that  used  in  Rome  which  may  be 
traced  back  to  about  the  middle  of  the  second  cen- 
tury. It  omits  the  phrases  "Maker  of  Heaven  and 
Earth,"  "was  conceived,"  "suffered,"  "dead,"  "He 
descended  into  hell,"  "God,"  "Almighty,"  "Cath- 
olic," "the  Communion  of  Saints"  and  "theLifeEver- 
lasting;"  though  these  additions  were  made  probably 
before  the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  Traces  of  the 
Creed  are  found  in  Ignatius,  in  Justin  Martyr,  and 
more  fully  in  the  Apology  of  Aristides.  It  is  still 
more  complete  in  Irenaeus,  Adv.  Haer.  I,  x :  i ;  III,  iv : 
2;  IV,  xxxiii:  7;  and  also  in  Tertullian,  De  Prses. 
Her.  13  and  36;  De  Virg.  Vel.  i.  Adv.  Prax.  2. 

Irenaeus  says  of  the  Rule  of  Faith  that  it  is  the 
unalterable  kernel  of  the  truth  which  Christians  have 
received  at  baptism.     (Adv.  Haer.  I,  ix:  4.) 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

McGiffert,  A.  C— The  Apostles'  Creed.     N.  Y.,  1902. 

Burn,  A.  E. — The  Articles  of  the  Apostles'  Creed.  Trans, 
from  Zahn.     Lond.,  1899. 

Bum,  A.  E. — An  Introduction  to  the  Creeds.     Lond.,  1899. 

Swete,  H.  B.— The  Apostles'  Creed.    3rd  ed.    Canib.,  1899. 

Harnack,  A. —  The  Apostles'  Creed.  Trans.,  Nineteetith 
Century,  July,  1893.     Also  translation  by  Stewart  Means. 


THE  CANON  OF  SCRIPTURE  65 

Heurtley,  C.  A. — A  History  of  the  Earlier  Formularies  of  the 
Faith.     Lond.  1892. 

Lumby,  J.  R. — History  of  the  Creeds.     3rd  ed.     Lond.,  1887. 

Gibson,  E.  C.  S.— The  Three  Creeds.  Oxford  Library  of 
Practical  Theology.    Lond.,  1908. 

Schaff,  P.— The  Creeds  of  Christendom.  3  vols.  4th  ed. 
N.  Y.,  1899. 

Swainson,  C.  A. — The  Nicene  and  Apostles'  Creeds.  Lond., 
1875. 

§11.  The  Canon  of  Scripture. 

The  appeal  made  by  the  Gnostics  to  alleged  apos- 
tolic men  and  to  a  secret  tradition,  and  Marcion's 
canon  of  Pauline  Scripture,  brought  the  Church  to  a 
realization  of  the  importance  of  a  fixed  authoritative 
canon.  The  Gnostics,  indeed,  were  the  first  to  apply 
exegetical  methods  to  New  Testament  Scriptures  and 
to  appeal  to  apostolic  writings  as  authoritative,  in 
order  to  defend  their  divergence  from  Catholic  tradi- 
tion; and  they  began  to  explain  the  existing  written 
form  of  the  evangelical  tradition  according  to  their  own 
ideas  by  asserting  an  esoteric  tradition,  and  by  means 
of  allegorical  interpretation,  which,  in  the  case  of  the 
Old  Testament,  was  indeed  in  universal  use  among 
Christians.  They  went  further,  in  the  falsification 
of  Scripture,  particularly  in  the  alteration  of  the 
Gospels  by  omissions  and  additions.  By  the  trans- 
formation of  the  evangelical  tradition,  the  heretical 
tendency  gained  credence.  To  this  period  belong 
many  of  the  apocryphal  Gospels  and  other  writings; 
e.g.,  the  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews,  of  the  Egyptians, 
Gospel  of  Thomas,  Gospel  of  Peter,  Acts  of  John, 


66  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

Acts  of  Thomas,  Acts  of  Andrew,  Acts  of  Paul  and 
Thekla. 

Marcion,  for  the  first  time,  set  up  a  closed  canon  of 
apostolic  writings  in  the  ten,  though  expurgated. 
Epistles  of  Paul,  and  a  Gospel  corresponding  to  our 
Third  Gospel  with  some  omissions  and  changes. 
The  earliest  testimonies  to  the  existence  of  the  New 
Testament  as  a  whole,  are  the  catalogue  contained 
in  the  famous  Muratonian  Fragment,  a  Western 
document,  170  a.d.,  and  the  Syriac  version  of  the 
New  Testament,  called  the  Peshito,  of  about  the  same 
date  and  to  a  great  extent  agreeing  with  it.  Tatian's 
Diatesseron,  a  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels,  gives 
still  earlier  evidence  of  the  authoritative  Canon  of 
the  Gospels.  (Cf.  Irenaeus  Adv.  Hser.  Ill,  11, 
showing  how  and  why  there  can  be  only  Four  Gos- 
pels.) 

The  Old  Testament  Canon  was  naturally  regarded 
as  already  completed.  Melito  of  Sardis,  170  a.d., 
after  a  travel  of  special  research  drew  up  a  list  of  Old 
Testament  Scriptures  corresponding  with  our  present 
Canon,  omitting  the  Book  of  Esther. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Westcott,  B.  F. —  General  Survey  of  the  History  of  the  Canon 
of  the  New  Testament.     7th  ed.     Lond.,  1896. 

Sanday,  W. — The  Gospels  in  the  Second  Century.  Lond., 
1876. 

Sanday,  W. — Inspiration,  Early  History  and  Origin,  etc. 
Lond.,  1896. 

Bennett,  W.  H.  and  Adeney,  W.  F. — Biblical  Introduction. 
Lond.,  1899. 


BAPTISM  67 


Wordsworth,  Christopher. — The  Canon  of  Scripture.  2nd  ed. 
Lend.,  185 1. 

Swainson,  C.  A. — The  Authority  of  the  New  Testament. 
Lend.,  1875. 

Davidson,  S. — The  Canon  of  the  Bible. 

Charteris,  A.  H. — Canonicity.     Lond.,  1880. 

Harnack,  A. — History  of  Dogma.     Vol.  II,  pp.  38-67. 

Moffat,  J., —  The  Historical  New  Testament.  2nd  ed. 
Edinb.,  1901. 

von  Soden,  H. — History  of  Early  Christian  Literature.  The 
Books  of  the  New  Testament.  Crown  Theol.  Lib..  Vol.  XIII. 
N.  Y.,  1906. 

Stanton,  V.  H. — The  Gospels  as  Historical  Documents. 
Camb.,  1903. 

Bacon,  B.  W. — Introduction  to  the  New  Testament.  N.  Y., 
1900. 

Gregory,  C.  R. —  Canon  and  Text  of  the  New  Testament. 
N.  Y.,  1907. 

Weiss,  B. — Introduction  to  the  New  Testament.  Trans. 
2  vols.     N.  Y.,  1896. 

Salmon,  George. — Introduction  to  the  New  Testament.  6th 
ed.     Lond.,  1892. 

§12.  Baptism 

Baptism  was  the  sign  and  seal  of  union  with  Christ 
and  His  Church,  the  first  and  fundamental  sacrament. 
It  was  adopted  from  the  Jewish  Church  where  it  was 
used  for  the  admission  of  proselytes,  and  was  analo- 
gous to  similar  rites  used  for  initiation  into  the 
mysteries  and  religious  systems  of  the  day.  An 
authoritative  account  is  given  in  the  Didache: 
"But  concerning  Baptism,  baptize  thus:  having  said 
beforehand  all  these  things  (facts,  faith  and  moral 
teaching  of  the  Gospel)  baptize  ye  in  the  Name  of  the 
Father,  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,    in 


68  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

living  water.  But  if  thou  hast  not  living  water,  bap- 
tize in  the  other  water,  and  if  thou  canst  not  in  cold 
then  in  warm.  But  if  thou  hast  not  either,  pour 
water  thrice  upon  the  head,  in  the  Name  of  the 
Father  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost."  The 
service  was  very  solemn  and  abounded  in  beautiful 
symbolism.  At  first,  usually  administered  by  the 
bishop,  though  allowed  to  priests  and  deacons,  and 
completed  by  the  anointing  with  oil  and  imposition 
of  hands.  The  latter  rite,  being  reserved  for  the 
bishop,  soon  became  a  separate  rite, — Confirmation. 

Infant  baptism  existed  probably  from  the  first. 
Jews  baptized  infant  proselytes,  and  it  is  not  con- 
demned nor  forbidden  in  the  New  Testament.  It  is 
implied  by  Jesus,  by  St.  Paul  and  by  the  accounts  in 
Acts.  It  is  maintained  by  Irenaeus  Adv.  Haer.  ii, 
22:  4;  ii:  39.  It  is  opposed,  as  already  existing,  by 
Tertullian,  De  Bapt.  18  and  20.  Origen  regarded 
it  as  an  immemorial  custom.  See  also  Cyprian, 
Epistle  57  (Oxford  64). 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Wall,  W. — History  of  Infant  Baptism.    4  vols.    Oxford,  1836. 

Wilberforce. — Holy  Baptism.     Lond.,  1849. 

Hooker,  Richard. — Ecclesiastical  Polity.  Book  V,  Sections 
58  to  65. 

Mozley,  J.  B. — Review  of  the  Baptismal  Controversy.  2nd 
ed.     Lond.,  1883. 

Sadler,  M.  F. — The  Sacrament  of  Responsibility.  5th  ed. 
Lond.,  1886. 

Malan,  S.  C. — The  Two  Holy  Sacraments.     Lond.,  1881. 

Stone,  Darwell. — Holy  Baptism.  Oxford  Library  of  Practical 
Theology.     Lond.,  1899. 

Rogers,  C.  F. — Early  History  of  Baptism.     Oxford,  1903. 


THE  EUCHARIST  69 

§13.  The  Eucharist 

From  the  beginning  Christians  assembled  together 
for  worship,  instruction  and  strength,  for  union  and 
service.  These  objects  were  preeminently  gained  in 
the  Lord's  Supper  (the  Holy  Eucharist  or  the  Holy 
Communion),  to  which  only  the  faithful  baptized  were 
admitted.  The  earliest  accounts,  outside  of  the  New 
Testament,  are  given  in  the  Didache,  9,  10  and  14; 
Pliny's  Letter  to  Trajan;  Justin  Martyr's  Apology 
I,  65-67;  Irenaeus,  Fragment  38;  Adv.  Haer.  iv:  18. 
v:  2;  2,  3;  Tert.  Apol.  30,  31,  39;  Orig.  Adv.  Cel., 
Bk.  viii. 

In  primitive  times  the  bread  and  wine  were  blessed 
and  received  at  the  household  meal  (Acts  ii:  46,  or  at 
a  more  general  one,  I  Cor.  xi :  20).  Often  in  connection 
with  the  Agape  (Acts  vi :  2 ;  Jude  12 ;  Tert.  Apol.  39), 
but  afterwards  as  a  separate  service;  at  first  in  the 
evening  and  later  at  early  dawn,  (Pliny  Ep.  96); 
Tert.  ad  Uxor,  ii:  4;  De  Corona  Mil.  3;  Cypr.  Ep.  62 
(Oxford  63),  always  every  Sunday.  The  bishop,  or  a 
presbyter  authorized  by  him,  administered  and  the 
other  presbyters  and  deacons  assisted.  The  bread 
and  wine  were  voluntary  gifts  of  the  faithful  and 
were  called  Oblations. 

The  bread  was  leavened  bread;  the  wine,  usually 
white  as  being  purer,  was  mixed  with  water.  After 
the  services  the  deacons  carried  what  was  left  to  the 
sick  and  imprisoned.  In  many  places  a  portion  of 
the  consecrated  bread  was  taken  home  and  eaten  at 


70  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

the  morning  prayer  for  the  consecration  of  a  new  day. 
From  the  earliest  times  the  Body  and  Blood  were 
associated  with  the  Bread  and  Wine.  (I  Cor.  x:  i6.) 
The  Lord's  Supper  was  regarded  as  a  supremely 
holy  mystery,  a  spiritual  food  indispensable  to  eter- 
nal life;  so  that  the  body  and  blood  of  the  Lord 
entered  into  some  mystical  connection  with  the  bread 
and  wine,  and  placed  the  faithful  partaker  of  them  in 
true  and  essential  fellowship  with  Christ. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Hooker.— Ecclesiastical  Polity.     Book  V,  Section  67. 

Cheatham,  S. — The  Mysteries,  Pagan  and  Christian.  Lond., 
1897. 

Hatch,  Edwin. — Influence  of  Greek  Ideas  and  Usages  upon 
the  Christian  Church.    Hibbert  Lectures,  1888.    2nded.    Lond., 


§14.  Festivals  and  Holy  Days 

Sunday,  the  first  day  of  the  week,  called  the  Lord's 
Day,  was  kept  from  the  first  Easter  Day,  as  a  day  of 
joy  and  special  service.  Prayer  was  said  standing, 
and  fasting  was  prohibited.  It  is  a  mistake  to  call 
this  day  the  Sabbath  Day,  which  was  the  seventh  or 
day  before,  and  was  quite  differently  observed  by 
Christians. 

Wednesday  (the  day  of  the  betrayal  and  condemna- 
tion), Friday  (the  day  of  the  Crucifixion),  were  days  of 
spiritual  service  and  remembrance,  called  Watch  Days, 
or  Days  of  Stations.  The  only  annual  celebrations  were 
Easter  and  Pentecost.     Another  class  of  yearly  festi- 


FESTIVALS  AND  HOLY  DA  YS  71 


vals  arose  from  the  annual  commemorations  of  Saints 
and  Martyrs,  on  the  day  of  their  death,  called  their 
birthday. 

A  controversy  arose  regarding  the  time  for  the 
observance  of  Easter,  called  the  Paschal  Controversy. 
As  our  Lord  was  crucified  and  rose  again  at  the  Pass- 
over season,  this  festival  became  to  the  Christians  the 
time  for  commemorating  the  Crucifixion  and  Resur- 
rection; but  as  to  the  day  of  its  observance  there  were 
three  different  practices  in  the  second  century.  Two 
of  them  were  based  on  the  apparent  difference  be- 
tween the  Synoptics  and  the  Fourth  Gospel.  Accor- 
ding to  the  Synoptics,  Jesus  celebrated  the  Passover 
with  His  disciples  on  the  Passover  day  itself,  the 
14th  Nisan,  was  crucified  on  the  following  day,  the 
15th  Nisan,  and  rose  on  the  third  day,  the  17th 
Nisan.  In  accordance  with  these  statements  the 
Ebionite  Jewish  Christians  kept  the  Paschal  feast  on 
the  14th  Nisan  as  did  the  Jews,  claiming  that  Christ 
did  the  same;  thus  ending  their  fast  on  the  14th 
Nisan,  no  matter  on  what  day  of  the  week  it  fell. 

But  according  to  St.  John's  Gospel,  identifying 
Jesus  with  the  Paschal  lamb,  the  last  Supper  was  in- 
stituted on  the  13th  Nisan,  the  day  before  the  Pass- 
over, and  Jesus  was  crucified  on  the  14th,  the  very 
day  the  lamb  was  slain  for  the  Paschal  feast.  In 
accordance  with  this  interpretation  the  Catholic 
Jewish  Christians  of  Asia  Minor,  claiming  to  follow 
the  precepts  and,  as  Polycarp  declared,  the  practice 
of   St.  John,^commemorated  the  Crucifixion  on  the 


THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 


14th  Nisan,  and  the  Resurrection  on  the  i6th,  irre- 
spective of  the  day  of  the  week  on  which  it  might  fall; 
also  ending  their  fast  on  the  afternoon  of  the  14th 
with  the  Agape  and  Lord's  Supper  as  the  Passover 
celebrating  the  Crucifixion.  On  this  account  they 
were  known  as  Quartodecimans.  Of  course  where 
either  of  these  forms  was  observed  much  confusion 
was  caused  in  the  Paschal  week;  for  Friday  was 
regularly  kept  every  week  as  the  day  of  the  Cruci- 
fixion, and  Sunday  as  the  weekly  memorial  of  the 
Resurrection. 

A  third  practice,  therefore,  obtained  in  the  Gentile 
Churches  of  the  West,  as  also  in  Egypt,  Palestine, 
Pontus  and  Greece,  which  sought  to  harmonize  the 
annual  with  the  weekly  celebration,  and  disregarded 
the  Jewish  celebration  altogether,  except  as  de- 
termining the  season.  In  accordance  with  this  prac- 
tice the  first  Friday  after  the  14th  Nisan  was  kept  as 
the  anniversary  of  the  Crucifixion  and  the  Sunday 
after  as  Easter  Day.  The  fasting  was  continued  till 
the  dawn  of  Easter  and  ended  with  the  Eucharist  on 
Easter  morning.  This  was  called  the  Dominical  or 
Sunday  use.  These  two  uses  (disregarding  the 
Ebionites  who  were  admittedly  heretics)  went  on 
without  conflict  until  the  well-known  visit  of  Polycarp, 
Bishop  of  Smyrna,  to  Rome  154  a.d.  The  Roman 
Bishop  Anjcetus  referred  to  the  tradition  of  the 
Roman  Church;  Polycarp  appealed  to  the  authority 
of  St,  John,  declaring  that  he  himself  had  actually 
celebrated  the  Paschal  festival  with  St.  John  accord- 


CHRISTIAN  LIFE  AND  DISCIPLINE  73 

ing  to  the  practice  still  continued  in  Asia  Minor. 
Neither  could  convince  the  other,  but  the  two  bishops 
parted  in  peace.     (Euseb.  H.  E.  v:  24.) 

The  Ebionite  practice  caused  a  lively  controversy 
in  the  Church  in  Asia  Minor  about  167  a.d.  in  which 
the  two  famous  apologists,  Apollinaris,  Bishop  of 
Hierapolis,  and  Melito  of  Sardis,  took  part. 

The  controversy  broke  out  again  in  Rome  at  the 
end  of  the  century,  when  Victor  was  bishop.  Wish- 
ing to  have  the  question  decided  he  asked  Polycrates, 
Bishop  of  Ephesus,  to  call  the  other  bishops  of  Asia  to 
a  synod,  but  they  adhered  to  their  old  custom.  Victor 
then  issued  a  letter  renouncing  communion  with 
them,  but  Irenaeus  and  others  remonstrated  and  he 
withdrew  it.  The  Churches  of  Asia  finally  adopted 
the  Dominical  use  and  by  the  fourth  century  it  had 
ceased  to  be  a  matter  of  dispute.  In  order  to  deter- 
mine which  Sunday  should  be  celebrated,  various 
cycles  were  used. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Butcher,  S. — The  Ecclesiastical  Calendar. 

For  W  12,  13  and  14  see  Bingham's  Antiquities,  Articles  in 
Dictionaries  and  Encyclopaedias,  especially  Dictionary  of  Chris- 
tian Antiquities,  and  the  books  of  A.  V.  G.  Allen  and  of  A.  P. 
Stanley  on  Christian  Institutions. 

§15.  Christian  Life  and  Discipline 

With  the  development  of  the  Christian  Organiza- 
tion and  Creed,  there  went  on  also  a  development  of 
definite  regulations  of  life,  evidenced  in  a  purifying 
8 


74  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

influence,  in  reaction  against  the  corruption  of  the 
over-refined  luxurious  and  sensuous  Greek  and  Roman 
culture.  This  showed  itself  first,  of  course,  in  the 
individual,  but  particularly  in  the  family,  and  in  the 
new  standards  set  up  by  the  Church.  In  the  ancient 
world  morality  had  never  been  associated  with  re- 
ligion, which  signified  only  the  ceremonial  worship 
of  the  gods,  except  so  far  as  this  worship  was  con- 
nected with  certain  ascetic  practices.  Morals  were 
associated  with  philosophy,  which  sought  to  elevate 
the  taste,  raise  the  standard  and  provide  the  incentive 
for  a  moral  life.  Yet  even  here  the  motives  were 
expediency  and  moderation  rather  than  principle  and 
conscience.  With  the  authoritative  declaration  of 
immortality,  of  the  spiritual  unity  and  holy  per- 
sonality of  God,  of  the  reality  and  supreme  impor- 
tance of  the  spiritual  personality  of  man,  manifested 
in  the  revelation  in  Jesus  Christ,  Christianity  brought 
into  the  world  a  hope,  an  inspiration,  a  power  and  a 
meaning  of  life  and  a  sense  of  its  reality  unknown 
before  and  but  dimly  foreshadowed  in  Judaism.  All 
this  at  once  separated  the  Christians  from  the  rest  of 
the  world.  They  were  in  it  but  not  of  it.  They  were 
serious  while  much  of  the  world  around  them  was 
frivolous.  The  life  of  the  world  was  so  permeated 
and  degraded  by  heathen  idolatry  and  immorality  that 
it  was  incompatible  with  a  life  devoted  to  Christian 
standards.  The  Christians  were  thus  cut  off  from  all 
the  amusements,  from  much  of  the  business,  civil 
and  military  life,  and  from  a  great  deal  of  the  social 


CHRISTIAN  LIFE  AND  DISCIPLINE  75 

life,  as  well  as  from  the  art  and  literature  of  the  world 
around  them. 

But  their  life  was  not  merely  negative.  With  the 
new  hope  and  new  meaning  for  life  there  came  a  new 
spirit  with  new  aims  and  purposes.  This  was  most 
evident  in  the  family  life.  Children  were  a  precious 
trust  and  their  maintenance  was  the  training  of  im- 
mortal souls.  Marriage  was  a  consecrated  and  holy 
relationship,  its  bond  a  pure  and  divine  love,  a  life- 
long union,  indissoluble  except  by  death  and  in  the 
one  case  of  adultery.  Indeed,  in  the  view  of  some, 
even  death  did  not  dissolve  it,  and  a  second  marriage 
was  regarded  as  a  sin,  and  in  the  second  century 
directly  forbidden  to  the  clergy.  In  spite  of  the 
high  place  accorded  to  Christian  marriage,  however, 
the  unmarried  state  was  regarded  as  higher,  and 
doubts  were  early  raised  as  to  whether  marriage 
should  be  permitted  to  the  clergy. 

Among  the  Christians,  brotherly  love  was  the  prin- 
ciple and  inspiration  of  every  activity.  This  showed 
itself  from  the  beginning  toward  the  helpless  and 
needy.  The  poor,  the  sick,  the  aged,  widows  and 
orphans,  strangers,  and  those  in  prison  or  in  captivity, 
were  the  objects  of  special  attention  and  relief.  This 
practical  care,  reaching  far  beyond  the  local  com- 
munity, testified  to  the  unity  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  extending  even  beyond  the  circle  of  believers, 
gave  evidence  of  a  divine  charity.  The  consciousness 
of  separation  from  and  reaction  against  the  pagan 
world  expressed  itself  in  an  increasing  tendency  to- 


76  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  AGE 

ward  asceticism,  an  extreme  form  of  self-denial  which 
was  not  confined  to  Christianity;  a  form  of  protest 
manifested  in  many  religions  and  ages. 

Ascetics,  individually  at  first,  withdrew  as  far  as 
might  be  from  the  world  and  devoted  themselves  to 
prayer  and  holy  meditation,  living  on  a  scanty  diet 
and  abstaining  from  marriage.  Already  in  the  sec- 
ond century  we  find  both  men  and  women  devoting 
themselves  to  celibacy,  forming  a  distinct  order  in 
the  Church,  though  not  bound  by  life-long  vows. 
The  apologist  Tatian  was  a  leader  of  those  who  from 
their  severe  self-denial  were  called  Encratites. 

We  have  noted  already  the  asceticism  of  the  Mon- 
tanists  and  of  some  of  the  Gnostic  sects. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Uhlhorn,  Gerhard. — Christian  Charity  in  the  Ancient  Church. 
Esp.  pp.  99-215.     N.  Y.,  1883. 

Hamack,  A. — Mission  and  Expansion.     II,  pp.  147-198. 

Schmidt,  C. — Social  Results  of  Early  Christianity.  Trans. 
Lond.,  1885. 

Marshall,  N. — Penitential  Discipline  of  the  Primitive  Church. 
Lond.,  1 7 14. 

Lea,  H.  C. — Studies  in  Church  History,     pp.  235-287. 

§16.   The  Intellectual  Attack 

Christianity  in  this  period  was  brought  within  the 
notice  of  the  writers  of  the  age.  Spiteful  and  con- 
temptuous fiings  are  found  in  the  writings  of  Taci- 
tus, Pliny,  Marcus  Aurelius,  Galen,  the  rhetorician 
Fronto,  and  the  cynic  Crescens;  while  caricatures,  in 
word  and  picture,   represented  them  as  worshippers 


THE  INTELLECTUAL  ATTACK  77 

of  the  ass,  a  term  of  contempt  originally  applied  to 
the  Jews. 

This  ridicule  and  satire  reached  its  height  in  the 
work  of  Lucian  of  Samosata,  who  has  been  called 
the  Voltaire  of  the  second  century.  It  is  entitled 
"The  Death  of  Peregrinus." 

But  the  serious  and  really  intellectual  attack  upon 
Christianity  was  made  by  Celsus;  modern  ingenuity 
has  done  little  more  than  elaborate  the  arguments  of 
the  ancient  rhetorician.  His  book,  called  "The  True 
Word,"  is  known  to  us  only  from  the  reply  of  Origen ; 
but  as  that  reply  quotes  the  exact  words  and  takes 
them  up  point  by  point,  the  original  work  of  Celsus 
has  been  completely  reproduced. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Fowler,  H.  W.  and  F.  G. — The  Works  of  Lucian.     4  vols. 
1905. 
Jebb,  R.  C. — Essays  and  Addresses.     Lucian.     Lond.,  1907. 
Harnack,  A. — Mission  and  Expansion.     I,  pp.  188  ff. 
Collins,  W.  L. — Lucian.     Edinb.,  1873. 
Bigg,  Charles. — Christian  Platonists.    pp.  253-268. 


A.  CHAPTER  III. 
THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

l80  A.D.   TO  313  A.D. 

§1.  The  Spread  of  Christianity 

THE  Church  had  now  reached  the  full  measure 
of  its  ecclesiastical  organization  with  the  defi- 
nite establishment  of  its  simple  Rule  of  Faith,  the 
authoritative  canon  of  its  accepted  Christian  writings, 
defended  and  assured  by  the  authority  of  the  Bishop 
at  the  head  of  each  community  of  believers  as  the 
centre  of  unity,  order  and  authority;  and  still  further 
strengthened  by  the  confederation  and  agreement  of 
the  Bishops,  by  Synods  and  by  the  larger  influence  and 
importance  of  the  great  Apostolic  Sees,  Antioch, 
Alexandria  and  Rome,  and,  of  hardly  less  importance, 
Carthage,  Caesarea  and  Ephesus. 

This  entrance  into  the  world  as  a  great  world  in- 
stitution carried  with  it  certain  modifications  of  the 
strict  requirements  on  the  life  of  believers,  achieved, 
however,  amid  vehement  struggles.  Consequently  the 
Church  of  the  third  century  entered  upon  a  greatly 
increased  activity  and  growth.  Persia,  India  and 
Armenia  were  formally  added  to  the  domain  of  the 
Christian  Church,  while  Asia  Minor,  Arabia,  North 
Africa  and  Spain  witnessed  its  even  wider  growth 
and  more  firmly  established  extension.  Many  new 
communities  were  formed  in  Gaul.    There  is  evidence 


THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  EMPIRE  79 

of  at  least  three  bishoprics  in  Britain:  York,  London, 
and  probably  Lincoln. 

Christianity  came  also  into  the  Roman  provinces 
on  the  Danube,  in  the  train  of  Roman  dominion  and 
civilization,  to  the  towns  and  fixed  quarters  of  the 
Roman  legions,  brougnt  by  soldiers,  workmen  and 
merchants.  In  Rhaetia,  we  have  Augsburg,  Regens- 
burg  (or  Ratisbon)  and  Passau ;  in  Noricum,  Lorch  and 
Pettau;  in  Pannonia,  Sirmium.  It  became  still  more 
strongly  established  in  the  Rhine  provinces,  in  the 
chief  centres  of  Roman  dominion;  where  Treves, 
Mainz,  Worms,  Speyer,  Strassburg,  Basle  and  Co- 
logne are  the  most  important. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Gardiner,  Percy. — The  Growth  of  Christianity.     Lond.,  1907. 

Harnack,  A. — Mission  and  Expansion.     II,  pp.  96-306. 

Orr,  James. — Some  Neglected  Factors  in  the  Study  of  the 
Early  Progress  of  Christianity.     N.  Y.,  1899. 

Spence,  H.  D.  M. — Early  Christianity  and  Paganism.  N.  Y., 
1902. 

§2.  The  Church  and  the  Empire; 
The  Persecutions 

For  about  seventy  years  after  Marcus  Aurelius, 
that  is,  two  generations  (from  180  a.d.  to  249  a.d.)  a 
period  covered  by  seventeen  emperors,  there  was  very 
little  persecution,  and  that  fitful  and  local.  Many  of 
the  emperors  were  weak  and  contemptible,  caring  no 
more  for  the  spread  of  Christianity  than  they  did  for 
any   of   the  larger  concerns  of   the  Empire.     There 


THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 


were  two  exceptions.  Septimius  Severus,  202  a.d., 
issued  a  rescript  forbidding  collegia  illicita  and  all 
conversions  to  Christianity.  In  the  provinces  the 
persecutions  based  on  the  judicial  decisions  became 
very  severe.  In  Alexandria,  Origen's  father,  Leoni- 
das,  and  others  suffered;  in  North  Africa,  Perpetua 
and  Felicitas,  and  others  whose  names  have  come 
down  to  us.  Under  the  next  emperor,  Caracalla,  211 
A.D.,  the  persecutions  gradually  ceased.  Alexander. 
Severus  (225-235  a.d.)  set  up  statues  of  Apollonius, 
Jesus,  Abraham  and  Orpheus  in  his  private  chapel, 
although  Christianity  was  not  acknowledged;  and  his 
successor,  Maximin  the  Thracian  (235-238  a.d.)  com- 
manded that  the  clergy  should  be  put  to  death  as  the 
real  causes  of  the  spread  of  the  Gospel ;  but  the  edict 
was  not  carried  out. 

Up  to  this  point  Christians  were  indeed  always 
legally  in  danger  and  exposed  to  popular  passion  and 
prejudice,  but  proceedings  against  them  had  always 
been  fitful  and  sporadic,  never  systematic  and  general; 
consequently  the  number  of  Christians  greatly  in- 
creased, and  their  attitude  became  more  confident  and 
assured.  The  strongly  organized  and  growing  Chris- 
tian Church  could  no  longer  be  ignored  by  a  states- 
manlike emperor,  nor  opposed  by  occasional  attacks. 
The  time  had  come  for  a  life  and  death  struggle. 
Under  Decius  (249-251  a.d.)  we  have  the  edict  of  250 
A.D.,  the  first  systematically  conceived  measure  aimed 
against  Christians  throughout  the  Empire.  All 
Christians  were  ordered  to  perform  the  Roman  state 


THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  EMPIRE  81 

religious  ceremonies  before  a  certain  day,  torture  and 
death  were  the  penalites  for  refusal,  and  every  effort 
was  made  to  force  the  Christians  to  apostatize. 
After  such  a  long  period  of  security  the  effect  was 
staggering  and  many  yielded.  Different  names  were 
given  to  the  various  classes  of  the  "lapsed" — sacri- 
ficati,  those  who  had  performed  sacrifice ;  thurificati, 
those  who  had  burned  incense ;  and  libellatici,  those 
who  had  received  certificates  of  worship  either  by  the 
act  itself,  or  for  a  money  payment,  which  the  Church 
regarded  as  especially  reprehensible  and  unworthy. 
Many  fell ;  but  a  deeper  love  and  fellowship,  a  nobler 
courage  and  a  larger  enthusiasm  and  zeal  were  the 
first  results.  As  Tertullian  expressed  it,  "The  blood 
of  the  martyrs  is  the  seed  of  the  Church."  It 
aroused  the  conscience  of  the  Christians  and  attracted 
more  general  attention  to  them.  From  that  time 
their  progress  was  even  more  rapid,  and  they  became 
more  active  and  conspicuous. 

After  the  martyrdom  of  Fabian,  Bishop  of  Rome, 
early  in  250,  the  see  remained  vacant  for  over  fifteen 
months,  until  the  death  of  Decius,  who  declared  he 
would  rather  have  a  rival  emperor  at  his  side  than  a 
bishop  at  Rome. 

Then  persecution  ceased;  but  Valerian  (253-260 
A.D.)  was  led  by  public  disasters  and  the  advice  of 
his  friends  to  renew  the  attack,  which  he  did  in  an 
edict  issued  257  a.d.,  banishing  the  bishops  and 
forbidding  the  assembling  of  Christians.  The  next 
year  he  issued  another  edict  even  more  severe  than 


82  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

that  of  Decius;  condemning  all  bishops,  priests,  and 
deacons  to  death.  Cyprian  of  Carthage,  who,  for  the 
sake  of  his  Church  had  escaped  from  the  persecution 
of  Decius,  returned  and  gained  a  martyr's  crown 
under  Valerian.  The  death  of  Valerian  ended  this 
most  sanguinary  persecution,  and  Gallienus  (260-268 
A.D.)  recalled  the  exiles  and  restored  their  property; 
but  Aurelius  (270-275  a.d.)  ordered  the  old  laws  en- 
forced with  renewed  vigor.  His  death  however  pre- 
vented the  execution  of  the  order  and  the  Christians 
had  another  generation  (about  forty  years)  of  peace. 

Under  Diocletian  (284-305  a.d.),  one  of  the  greatest 
and  most  statesmanlike  of  all  the  emperors,  began  the 
last,  longest  and  severest  persecution.  Mildest  in  the 
West,  and  most  severe  in  Syria  and  Egypt,  it  lasted 
eight  long,  terrible  years.  He  took  up  the  struggle 
reluctantly;  but  it  began  303  a.d.  and  lasted  till  311 
A.D.,  being  continued  in  the  East  by  Galerius  and 
Maximin  after  the  abdication  of  Diocletian,  305  a.d. 
Various  edicts  in  quick  succession  ordered  all  soldiers 
to  take  part  in  the  sacrifices,  churches  to  be  razed  to 
the  ground,  the  Scriptures  to  be  burned,  Christian 
officials  degraded,  Christian  servants  enslaved,  bish- 
ops imprisoned  and  forced  to  sacrifice,  and  the 
severest  tortures  employed  to  compel  Christians  to 
conform.  Everywhere  except  in  the  West  these  laws 
were  executed  with  great  severity,  until  checked  by 
the  edict  of  limited  toleration  issued  by  Galerius  on 
his  death-bed,  and  signed  by  his  co-regents  Constan- 
tine  and  Licinius,  and  probably  by  Maxentius,   311 


THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  EMPIRE  83 

A.D.,  and  finally  stopped  by  the  decree  of  complete 
toleration  which  was  granted  by  Constantine  and 
Licinius,  the  only  remaining  emperors,  in  the  famous 
Edict  of  Milan,  313  a.d.,  after  a  glorious  struggle  of 
250  years. 

The  results  of  the  persecutions  may  be  briefly 
summarized: 

1.  Increased  growth  and  influence  of  Christianity. 

2.  Organization  of  the  Church  strengthened  and 
unified.  The  extraordinary  development  of  the 
power  of  the  Bishops  of  Rome  was  greatly  influenced. 
Christianity  was  adopted  by  the  Empire;  but  also, 
for  weal  or  woe,  the  Empire  was  adopted  by  Chris- 
tianity. 

3.  The  Church  was  kept  purer  in  belief  and  prac- 
tice, and  more  united  in  form;  also  tending  to  the 
conspicuous  leadership  of  the  Roman  Church. 

4.  It  produced  a  group  of  extraordinary  literary 
defenders,  who  helped  to  develop  the  fundamental 
orthodox  Christian  doctrine. 

5.  The  forms  of  worship  were  modified  ;  veneration 
of  saints  and  martyrs  and  of  their  relics  originated; 
and  the  priesthood  was  sanctified  and  set  above  the 
laity.  The  bishops,  singled  out  by  the  edicts  of  the 
persecuting  emperors,  were  raised  to  a  still  higher 
rank  in  the  respect  and  obedience  of  the  faithful. 

Constantine,  the  hero  of  this  great  victory,  was 
born  about  274  a.d.  in  upper  Moesia.  His  father  was 
Constantius  Chlorus,  nephew  of  the  Emperor  Clau- 
dius Gothicus,  and  Caesar  of  the  West  under  Diocle- 


84  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

tian.  His  mother  was  Helena,  an  innkeeper's  daugh- 
ter. He  is  said  to  have  learned  Christianity  from 
his  mocher,  and  early  followed  his  father's  policy  of 
toleration  toward  the  Christians  in  the  West.  Dio- 
cletian himself,  down  to  303  a.d.,  was  not  unfavorable 
to  Christianity,  both  his  wife  and  daughter  being 
Christians,  and  it  was  only  two  years  after  the  persecu- 
tion began  that  he  resigned.  Whether  his  disapproval 
of  the  persecuting  policy  of  Maximin  and  Galerius 
had  anything  to  do  with  his  resignation  is  not  known. 
Constantius,  who  ruled  over  Britain,  Gaul  and  Spain, 
was  tolerant  toward  the  Christians;  and  his  Caesar, 
Severus,  did  not  show  any  great  zeal  for  persecuting 
in  Italy  and  Africa,  so  that  there  was  little  persecu- 
tion in  the  West  after  the  first  two  years  (303-305 
A.D.).  When  Constantius  died,  306  a.d.,  the  soldiers 
proclaimed  his  son  Constantine  as  Augustus,  to 
succeed  him.  Thus  Diocletian's  scheme  of  two 
Augusti  and  two  Caesars  broke  down ;  and  indeed  at 
one  time  there  were  six  claimants  to  the  title  of 
Augustus.  After  the  edict  of  Galerius  and  his  death, 
311  A.D. ,  Maximin  joined  by  Maxentius  continued  the 
persecution  of  the  Christians  in  the  East,  and  en- 
deavored to  form  an  organized  pagan  Church  with  an 
ofificial  hierarchy.  This  inclined  their  rivals  to  take 
up  the  cause  of  the  Christians. 

Constantine,  therefore,  claimed  their  support  in 
the  West  against  Maxentius  who  was  preparing  to 
invade  Gaul.  On  the  march  against  Maxentius,  with 
Christian  bishops  in  his  retinue,  he  saw,  he  declared 


THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  EMPIRE  85 


in  the  western  sky,  above  the  setting  sun,  a  fiery- 
cross  with  the  phrase  toutw  vUa\  and  said  that  in  a 
dream  the  following  night  Christ  Himself  appeared 
and  ordered  him  to  take  the  emblem  as  a  standard  of 
defence  against  his  enemies.  Thereupon  he  took  the 
monogram  of  Christ,  XP,  with  the  cross  for  his 
banner  or  labarinn;  summoned  the  Christians  to  his 
service;  and,  protected  by  the  cross,  went  forward 
against  Maxentius  whom  he  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Milvian  Bridge,  October  27,  312  a.d.  The  story  has 
been  variously  interpreted;  but  the  standard  and  the 
victory  under  it  are  facts  of  history.  The  sign  be- 
came the  emblem  of  Constantine,  on  his  helmet,  on 
the  shields  of  his  soldiers,  on  the  banners  of  his 
armies  and  on  his  coins  (though  sometimes  with 
heathen  emblems  on  the  reverse).  From  this  time 
the  restoration  of  imperial  unity  and  the  triumph  of 
Christianity  advanced  side  by  side. 

Constantine,  victor  in  the  West,  now  joined  with 
Licinius  the  victor  in  the  East,  and,  313  a.d.,  issued  the 
famous  Edict  of  Milan,  which  for  the  first  time  con- 
ferred a  legal  status  upon  Christianity.  This  edict 
went  far  beyond  that  of  311 ;  which  only  stopped  the 
persecutions,  but  without  allowing  any  one  to  leave  his 
own  religion  and  join  another.  After  313  a.d.  people 
could  and  did  openly  desert  the  old  religion  and  pro- 
fess the  new  faith;  indeed,  later,  Constantine  publicly 
exhorted  all  his  subjects  to  worship  the  God  of  the 
Christians.  Christianity  was  put  on  an  equality  with 
paganism,  an  opportunity  was  given  for  public  organi- 


THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 


zation,  and  the  Church  was  legalized  as  a  corporation 
capable  of  receiving  legacies  and  administering 
property.  All  Church  property  confiscated  during 
the  persecutions  was  restored.  It  is  important  to 
notice  that  this  edict  did  not  establish  Christianity 
as  the  State  religion;  did  not  give  it  a  corporate 
existence  for  the  first  time,  but  gave  it  all  the  privi- 
leges which  the  pagan  religion  enjoyed,  and  enabled 
it  to  take  rank  as  a  privileged  cult,  subsidized  by  the 
State.    Instead  of  a  tacit  tolerance  it  now  had  a  legal 

title. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Workman,  H.  B. — Persecutions  in  the  Early  Church.  Lond., 
1906. 

Gregg,  J.  A.  F. — The  Decian  Persecution.     Lond.,  1897. 

Healy,  P.  J. — The  Valerian  Persecution.     N.  Y.,  1905. 

Mason,  A.  J. — The  Persecution  of  Diocletian.     Camb.,  1876. 

Mason,  A.  J.— Historic  Martyrs  of  the  Primitive  Church. 
Lond.,  1905. 

Uhlhorn,  G.— Conflict  of  Christianity  with  Heathenism. 
Trans.     N.  Y.,  1879. 

Holmes,  T.  Scott.— The  Christian  Church  in  Gaul. 

Lecky,  W.  E.  H.— History  of  European  Morals,  pp.  395-468. 
N.  Y.,  1895. 

University  of  Pennsylvania. — Translations  and  Reprints. 
Vol.  IV.,  No.  I.     Phil.,  1898. 

§3.  Theological  Schools  and  Tendencies 

Just  as  we  mark  a  note  of  difference  in  going  from 
the  authoritative,  interpretative  writings  of  the  New 
Testament  in  the  first  century  to  the  hortatory,  ex- 
pository writings  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  and  from 
them  to  the  apologetic  and  polemic  writings  of  the 


THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS  AND  TENDENCIES    87 

Post-Apostolic  Age  in  the  second  century,  so  we 
mark  another  step  in  the  development  of  the  Church's 
thought,  in  passing  to  the  more  scientific  and  com- 
prehensive theological  writings  of  the  Old  Catholic 
Age  in  the  third  century,  leading  up  to,  and  preparing 
for  the  Nicene  period  in  the  fourth  century.  While 
these  developments  were  in  progress,  there  arose 
within  the  Catholic  Church  four  different  theological 
schools  of  thought,  each  with  a  special  and  important 
characteristic  of  its  own: — the  Asiatic,  the  Alex- 
andrian, the  Antiochian,  and  the  North  African. 

Asia  Minor  deserves  a  volume  by  itself.  Nowhere 
was  there  greater  religious  activity  than  in  the  Syrian 
home  of  Christianity  and  in  the  neighboring  Asia 
Minor.  It  was  the  scene  of  St.  Paul's  earliest  mis- 
sions. The  earliest  evidences  of  ecclesiastical  organi- 
zation and  the  earliest  heresies  are  found  there.  It 
was  there  that  the  Jewish  converts  clung  most  tena- 
ciously to  their  ancient  rites,  and  the  anticipation 
of  the  millenial  reign  of  Christ  on  earth  was  most 
deeply  rooted  and  took  on  its  most  fantastic  forms. 
There  also  Montanism  found  its  earliest  followers.  It 
was  the  home  of  St.  John,  Ignatius,  Polycarp,  Papias 
and  Irenseus.  Irenaeus  was  a  pupil  of  Polycarp  and 
a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  born  in  the  first  quarter  of 
the  second  century.  He  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
as  a  representative  of  the  ecclesiastical  positions 
which  were  then  becoming  most  prominent.  His 
connection  with  the  earlier  Church  and  traditions 
of  the  Post-Apostolic  Age  made  him  a  wise  medium 


THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 


of  transition  from  that  age  to  the  next.  Renan 
calls  him  the  model  of  the  complete  ecclesiastic. 
Learned,  orthodox  and  able,  he  stands  out  as  one  of 
the  most  important  and  most  impressive  figures  of 
the  second  century.  He  spoke  with  authority  as 
the  direct  representative  of  the  school  of  St.  John. 
In  the  Easter  controversy,  when  Victor,  Bishop  of 
Rome,  tried  to  cut  off  the  Asiatic  Church  for 
holding  to  the  Quartodeciman  position,  Irenaeus 
intervened  and  persuaded  Victor  to  relent.  He  was 
one  of  that  early  band  of  Christians  who  went  from 
Asia  Minor  to  Southern  Gaul,  where  he  became  a 
presbyter  at  Lyons.  In  this  capacity  he  brought  to 
Bishop  Eleutherus  of  Rome  the  letter  from  the  mar- 
tyrs in  their  prison,  expressing  the  sympathy  they 
felt  for  the  Montanists  as  their  fellow-countrymen, 
and  thus  he  escaped  the  executions  which  followed, 
177  A.D.  Bishop  Pothinus  of  Lyons  was  martyred, 
and  Irenaeus  on  his  return  from  Rome  succeeded  him 
as  Bishop.  His  visit  to  Rome  brought  him  into  con- 
tact with  Gnosticism,  particularly  the  Valentinian 
system.  His  work  against  the  Gnostics,  in  five 
books,  written  between  182  and  188  a.d.,  is  of  the 
greatest  historical  value,  as  he  had  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  their  various  systems.  In  the  third  book, 
which  is  of  special  importance,  he  gives  a  con- 
cise summary  of  the  uniform  teaching  of  the 
Church  (one  of  the  earliest  forms  of  the  Rule  of 
Faith)  and  attaches  the  highest  importance  to  tra- 
dition, which  is  verified  and  confirmed  by  the  sue- 


THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS  AND  TENDENCIES    89 

cession  of  bishops  and  presbyters,  reaching  back  to 
the  Apostles  in  the  various  Churches,  among  which  he 
cites  as  the  most  conspicuous  and  accessible,  the 
Churches  of  Rome  and  of  Asia.  This  guaranteed 
tradition  he  uses  as  the  most  effective  weapon  against 
the  false  tradition  of  his  opponents.  Thus  the 
appeal  to  tradition  antedates  the  appeal  to  reason  and 
argument.  When  and  how  he  died  is  uncertain;  the 
earliest  tradition  being  that  of  Gregory  of  Tours, 
(d.  595  A.D.),  who  states  that  he  was  martyred  202  a.d. 
under  Septimius  Severus. 

Hippolytus  of  Rome  was  his  disciple  and  continued 
his  work.  He  was  a  presbyter  at  Rome  under  Bish- 
ops Zephyrinus  (202-217  a.d.),  and  Callistus  (217-222 
A.D.),  whose  too  easy  readmission  of  penitents  he 
strenuously  opposed.  In  the  controversy  which 
Hippolytus  had  with  the  Patripassian  Sabellius  and 
the  Noetians,  the  Roman  bishops,  especially  Callis- 
tus, tried  to  reconcile  the  two  by  a  statement  which 
indeed  later  developed  into  the  true  Athanasian  posi- 
tion, but  resulted  in  Hippolytus  calling  the  bishop  a 
Noetian,  while  the  Noetians  denounced  him  as  a  Dy- 
theist.  Both  Hippolytus  and  Sabellius  were  excom- 
municated. It  was  then,  probably,  that  Hippolytus 
was  chosen  by  his  followers  as  their  bishop  in  opposi- 
tion to  Callistus.  United  with  the  Roman  Bishop  Pon- 
tianus  in  a  common  banishment  to  the  mines  of  Sar- 
dinia (235  A.D.),  a  reconciliation  took  place.  In  death 
they  were  not  divided,  and  both  were  honored  as 
martyrs  by  the  Roman  Church,  A  statue  had  been 
9 


90  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

erected  to  him  as  Bishop  of  Portus,  probably  222  a.d. 
(at  the  beginning  of  his  schism),  discovered  1551 
A.D.,  representing  him  as  seated  on  an  episcopal 
throne,  on  the  back  of  which  is  a  list  of  his  writings 
and  the  sixteen-year  Easter  Cycle  which  he  arranged. 
He  is  often  compared  with  Origen.  Indeed  his 
greatest  work,  "Philosophoumena,  or  Refutation  of  all 
Heresies,"  was  formerly  ascribed  to  Origen.  It  is 
based  on  Irenasus,  but  gives  fuller  knowledge  con- 
cerning the  different  Gnostic  systems  and  shows  their 
relation  to  pagan  philosophy.  But  he  was  more  of  a 
scholar  than  a  thinker,  and  of  first  rank  as  an 
exegete.  Forty  or  fifty  writings  of  various  kinds 
were  ascribed  to  him.  He  was  one  of  the  last  of 
Roman  scholars  who  wrote  in  Greek. 

A  catechetical  school  was  established  early  at 
Alexandria  under  the  supervision  of  the  bishop,  at 
first  to  prepare  heathen  and  Jews  for  baptism.  From 
this,  under  the  philosophical  influences  of  the  city,  it 
grew  into  a  sort  of  theological  seminary.  The  first 
head  of  the  school  was  Pantaenus,  of  whom  little  more 
than  his  name  has  come  down  to  us.  He  died  202 
A.D.  (Euseb.  H.  E.,  V,  10,  11;  VI,  3,  4,  9.)  His 
convert,  pupil  and  successor  was  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria (Titus  Flavins  Clemens).  On  his  travels, 
undertaken  in  the  search  for  knowledge,  he  came  to 
Alexandria  as  a  learned  pagan  philosopher.  Here  he 
found  that  the  wisdom  of  Greece  was  not  condemned 
nor  treated  with  indifference,  but  regarded  as  a  pre- 
paratory  light   from    the   Divine    Logos   adored   by 


THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS  AND  TENDENCIES    91 

Christians  in  Jesus  Christ.  He  became  a  Christian 
and  succeeded  Pantaenus  as  head  of  the  school  at 
Alexandria.  His  chief  writings  are:  "The  Protrep- 
tic  or  Exhortation  to  the  Greeks,"  which  seeks 
to  prepare  the  minds  of  the  heathen  for  Christianity 
by  proving  the  vanity  of  heathenism;  "The  Peda- 
gogue," in  three  books,  an  introduction  to  the  Chris- 
tian life;  "The  Stromata  or  Miscellanies,"  in  eight 
books,  setting  forth  the  deeper  thought  of  a  true 
Christian  Gnosis,  which  by  its  learning  and  nobility 
undermined  the  influence  of  Gnosticism.  Also  a 
little  tract,  "Who  is  the  Rich  Man  who  will  be 
Saved?"  Another  important  work  which  is  lost  en- 
titled "Hypotyposes,"  in  eight  books,  was  an  ex- 
pository review  of  the  contents  of  the  Scriptures. 
He  died  c.  215  a.d. 

Great  as  Clement  was  as  a  thinker  and  scholar,  he 
was  far  surpassed  by  Origen,  who  was  regarded  by 
his  pagan  and  Christian  contemporaries  as  a  miracle 
of  scholarship.  He  was  celebrated  as  a  philosopher, 
philologist,  critic,  exegete,  dogmatist,  apologist,  the 
founder  of  a  scientific  theology  and  the  originator  of 
many  heresies.  He  was  born  in  Alexandria  185  a.d., 
and  brought  up  as  a  Christian.  His  father,  Leonidas, 
was  his  first  teacher,  and  became  a  martyr  202  a.d. 
Many  of  the  early  Christian  scholars,  like  Justin 
Martyr  and  Clement  of  Alexandria,  had  passed  from 
pagan  philosophy  to  the  Christian  faith ;  their  educa- 
tion had  been  first  philosophical  and  then  religious. 
Origen  followed  the  reverse  order.     Realizing  that  he 


92  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

must  understand  the  teaching  which  he  had  to  op- 
pose, he  entered  upon  the  study  of  Greek  philosophy. 
His  biography  is  a  romance:  he  lived  through  self- 
mutilation,  persecution,  torture  and  the  rack,  poverty 
and  hard  labor;  and  died  at  Tyre  253  a.d.,  as  the 
result  of  his  sufferings  in  the  Decian  persecution. 
At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  succeeded  Clement  as  head 
of  the  school  at  Alexandria,  though  he  was  not 
ordained  until  twenty-five  years  afterward  at  Caesa- 
rea,  228  a.d.  His  writings  were  estimated  at  from 
two  to  six  thousand  titles,  of  which  only  a  few  re- 
main. One  of  his  greatest  works  was  the  "Hex- 
apla,"  or  six-fold  Old  Testament;  giving  the  Hebrew 
text  in  Hebrew  and  in  Greek  characters,  the  Septua- 
gint  and  three  other  Greek  versions.  It  disappeared 
during  or  after  the  fourth  century,  (See  Swete,  In- 
troduction to  the  Old  Testament  in  Greek,  Chap. 
III.)  Origen's  two  great  works,  "First  Principles" 
(the  first  treatise  on  systematic  theology),  and 
"Against  Celsus,"  have  come  down  to  us. 

Dionysius  Alexandrinus  was  the  most  celebrated 
successor  of  Origen,  and  his  convert  and  pupil.  He 
was  head  of  the  catechetical  school  232  a.d.,  and  be- 
came Bishop  of  Alexandria  247  a.d.  He  died  265 
A.D.     Only  fragments  of  his  writings  are  preserved. 

Gregory  Thaumaturgus  was  another  of  Origen's 
converts  and  pupils;  he  was  Bishop  of  Neo-Caesarea, 
and  died  270  a.d.  Pamphilius,  the  friend  of  Euse- 
bius,  and  a  learned  presbyter  of  Caesarea,  also  belongs 
to  this  group. 


THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS  AND  TENDENCIES    93 

We  may  mention  here  other  Greek-speaking  Church 
teachers  of  this  period.  Hegesippus,  a  Judaic  Chris- 
tian, is  sometimes  called  the  Father  of  Church  His- 
tory ;  although  the  fragments  we  have  are  rather  fabu- 
lous and  not  arranged  in  chronological  order.  Caius  of 
Rome,  about  2 10  a.  d.  ,  was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous 
opponents  of  Montanism.  Sextus  Julius  Africanus, 
a  native  of  Palestine,  died  about  240  a.d.  His  lost 
work  on  Chronography,  a  history  of  the  world  from 
the  creation,  was  used  as  a  manual  of  history  during 
the  Middle  Ages ;  from  it  Eusebius  derived  his  lists  of 
the  bishops  of  Rome,  Alexandria  and  Antioch. 
Fragments  have  come  down  to  us ;  and  also,  in  full,  a 
dialogue,  "The  Symposium  of  the  Ten  Virgins." 

The  Antiochian  school  marked  another  distinct 
tendency  in  theological  thought ;  being  characterized 
by  literal  and  grammatical  exactness  of  interpretation 
and  thought.  Antioch  was  the  greatest  of  the  Greek 
towns  where  the  Greek  spirit  still  retained  its  ascen- 
dancy. It  succeded  Jerusalem  as  the  chief  metropo- 
lis of  Christendom,  and  a  catechetical  school  seems 
to  have  developed  there,  as  at  Alexandria;  but  after 
Hadrian's  time,  the  Church  at  Antioch  is  lost  to  sight. 
Enthusiasm  for  Bible  study  was  kept  up  at  Antioch ; 
and  with  a  more  sober  and  historical  mode  of  inter- 
pretation than  at  Alexandria,  where  the  allegorical 
method  prevailed.  The  earliest  writer  was  Theophi- 
lus.  Bishop  of  Antioch,  who  wrote  a  "Defense  of 
Christianity"  addressed  to  Autolycus,  and  also  a  work 
against  Hermogenes.     The  latter  seems  to  have  been 


94  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

incorporated  in  Tertullian's  work  on  the  same  subject. 
He  also  wrote  a  book  on  the  history  of  the  world,  and 
thus  anticipated  Julius  Africanus  and  Hippolytus. 
Dorotheus  and  Lucian  were  the  chief  exponents  of 
the  school  in  the  third  century.  Dorotheus,  who  died 
about  290  A.D.,  was  a  man  of  liberal  mind,  of  Greek 
culture  and  able  to  read  the  Hebrew  Old  Testament. 
Lucian,  a  presbyter  of  Antioch,  died  a  martyr  312 
A.D.  He  was  a  man  of  upright  and  active  life,  well 
disciplined  in  sacred  learning,  making  a  critical  re- 
vision of  the  text  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 
Among  his  disciples  were  Arius  and  many  other 
leaders  in  the  Arian  movement.  Eusebius,  Bishop  of 
Emesa,  who  died  360  a.d.,  Diodorus,  Bishop  of  Tar- 
sus, his  pupil,  who  died  394  a.d.,  and  John  Chrysos- 
tom,  the  pupil  of  Diodorus,  raised  to  the  Patriarchate 
of  Constantinople,  and  died  in  exile  407  a.u., — these 
three  formed  the  strength  and  established  the  reputa- 
tion of  the  school  at  Antioch  in  the  last  half  of  the 
fourth  century.  They  were  noted  for  their  exegetical 
studies;  following  the  plain  grammatical  sense  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  illustrating  the  principles  of  the 
school. 

Strange  to  say,  the  school  of  Latin  Church  writers 
began  not  in  Rome  but  in  North  Africa.  The 
Roman  Church  was  at  first  "a  Greek  religious 
colony."  The  source  of  the  Christianity  of  North 
Africa  is  not  known,  though  it  was  probably  Rome, 
as  the  connection  between  the  two  was  very  close. 
The    first    great    writer   in    this    school    was    Ter- 


THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS  AND  TENDENCIES  95 

tullian — Quintus  Septimius  Florens — ^son  of  a 
heathen  centurion  of  Carthage;  born  between  150  and 
160  A.D.,  a  distinguished  advocate  (or  attorney),  con- 
verted when  about  thirty  or  forty  years  old  and  be- 
came a  presbyter  (probably  in  Carthage);  died  at  Car- 
thage 220  A.D.,  or  later.  His  mind,  essentially  legal 
and  fanatical,  carried  him  finally,  on  account  of  his 
asceticism  and  puritanical  nature,  over  to  the  Mon- 
tanists,  whom  he  joined  about  202  a.d.  He  began  to 
write  in  Greek  but  later  changed  to  Latin.  His 
writings  are  of  great  historical  importance  as  well  as 
of  theological  interest.  The  Octavius  by  Minucius 
Felix  may  be  earlier;  but  Tertullian  has  been  rightly 
recognized  as  the  actual  creator  of  ecclesiastical  Latin. 
His  writings  may  be  divided  into  three  groups: 

1.  Apologetic  —  against  Jews  and  Pagans. 

2.  Theological  —  against  Heretics. 

3.  Ethical  and  Ascetic  writings. 

Another  division  makes  one  group  of  those  written 
before,  and  another  of  those  written  after,  he  became 
a  Montanist ;  but  this  is  not  easily  determined  in  every 
case.  His  book,  "Prescription  of  Heretics,"  is  al- 
most a  Catholic  textbook;  and,  indeed,  he  became 
the  father  of  distinctly  Western  Catholicism.  The 
Western  spirit  showed  itself  in  his  predominating 
practical  tendency,  more  ethical  and  formal.  The 
Alexandrians  were  more  speculative  and  mystical  in 
the  freer  style  of  the  East.  They  were  not  so  polemic 
and  apologetic,  but  more  intent  upon  the  expression 
of  the  inner  spiritual  and  scientific  truth  of  Chris- 


96  THE  OLD  CA  THOLIC  A  GE 

tianity,  rather  than  upon  its  development  as  a  system 
to  be  formulated  and  defended.  Indeed,  Christian 
theological  science  in  the  highest  sense  of  the  phrase 
began  in  Alexandria,  where  we  find  the  appropriation 
of  the  complete  result  of  previous  culture  and  its 
blending  with  the  Christian  point  of  view.  Juris- 
prudence in  Carthage  and  philosophy  in  Alexandria 
entered  into  Christianity. 

Thascius  Caecilius  Cyprianus  was  born  of  a  wealthy 
family  in  Carthage,  and  while  a  young  man  attained 
social  eminence  and  great  popularity  as  a  teacher  of 
rhetoric  and  an  expert  lawyer.  Suddenly  he  re- 
nounced his  wealth,  his  profession  and  all  secular 
literature,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  Bible  alone; 
having  been  converted  to  Christianity  by  Caecilius,  a 
presbyter  of  Carthage;  and  was  baptized  246  a.d. 
Soon  afterward  he  was  ordained;  and,  about  248  a.d., 
was  raised  to  the  bishopric  of  Carthage  by  the 
almost  unanimous  vote  of  the  clergy  and  the  free 
choice  of  the  people.  Five  presbyters  opposed  his 
election  and  remained  in  active  antagonism  to  him. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Decian  persecution,  250  a.d., 
Cyprian  left  the  city,  but  returned  after  a  year's 
absence.  His  epoch-making  significance  may  be  seen 
in  his  successful  struggle  for  the  greater  unity  in  the 
Church,  and  his  contribution  to  the  development  of 
the  Christian  ministry  into  a  hierarchical  adminis- 
trative order.  The  schism  of  Novatus  and  the  re- 
lations with  Rome  are  the  most  important  events. 
His  writings,  comprising  twelve  treatises  and  eighty- 


THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS  AND  TENDENCIES  97 

one  epistles  to  meet  practical  issues,  are  of  the  very 
highest  value  as  sources  for  the  history  of  his  time. 
He  himself  collected  and  preserved  them  with  the 
greatest  care,  though  they  have  come  down  to  us  with 
some  interpolations.  For  two  centuries  they  held  a 
place  next  to  the  Scriptures.  The  treatises  are  on 
apologetics,  dogmatics,  ethics  and  Church  polity. 
The  most  important  are  the  one  "To  Donatus,"  writ- 
ten soon  after  this  conversion,  contrasting  Christi- 
anity with  paganism,  and  that  "On  the  Unity  of  the 
Church." 

When  Cyprian  returned  to  Carthage  after  a  year's 
absence,  he  found  the  small  party  which  had  opposed 
his  election  now  in  rebellion  against  him,  led  by  the 
presbyter  Novatus,  a  disappointed  candidate  for  the 
episcopate.  His  position  was  made  doubly  difficult 
by  the  attitude  of  the  confessors,  who  claimed  the 
right  to  allow  the  readmission  to  communion  of  those 
who  had  lapsed  from  the  faith  by  conforming  to 
paganism,  and  had  appealed  to  them.  This  was  sub- 
versive of  discipline  and  episcopal  authority.  Nova- 
tus, with  a  deacon  named  Felicissimus,  joined  the 
confessors  in  the  opposition.  An  African  Synod 
(now  a  regular  institution,  held  once  or  twice  a  year), 
upheld  Cyprian;  but  later  Felicissimus  secured  the 
election  of  Fortunatus  as  a  rival  bishop.  Novatus 
withdrew  to  Rome  after  the  death  of  Fabian,  and 
there  took  a  leading  part  in  another  schism  under 
Novatian  (a  scholarly  man  and  the  first  Latin  writer 
in  the  Roman  Church,  the  leader  of  the  rigorist  party 


98  THE  OLD  CA  THOLIC  A  GE 

at  Rome  against  the  readmission  of  the  lapsed),  in 
some  sense  a  continuation  of  the  schism  of  Hippoly- 
tus,  though  not  immediately  following,  and  without 
its  doctrinal  features.  Novatian  was  chosen  as  a 
rival  bishop;  the  movement  spread,  and  Novatianist 
churches,  based  on  rigorous  treatment  of  the  lapsed, 
were  formed  in  various  parts  of  the  Empire.  They 
stood  faithfully  in  defense  of  the  Nicene  Creed,  and 
remnants  of  the  party  existed  down  to  the  sixth  cen- 
tury. Connected  with  it  was  the  Meletian  schism  in 
Egypt,  where  Meletius,  Bishop  of  Lycopolis,  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  rigorist  party,  infringed  upon  the 
rights  of  the  Bishop  of  Alexandria.  He  was  ex- 
communicated by  a  synod  (306  a.d.),  and  gained  a 
large  following  who  later  joined  the  Arians. 

On  several  occasions  the  relations  between  Cyprian 
and  the  Church  at  Rome  were  somewhat  strained. 
After  the  martyrdom  of  Fabian,  letters  had  come 
from  the  presbyters  at  Rome  reflecting  on  the  con- 
duct of  Cyprian  in  evading  persecution  by  leaving  his 
city;  but  Cyprian  succeeded  in  justifying  his  action. 
Cornelius,  Fabian's  successor,  seemed  inclined  to 
favor  the  doubts  cast  upon  Cyprian's  right  to  occupy 
the  see  of  Carthage ;  but  harmony  was  soon  restored. 
Later  a  real  controversy  arose  with  Stephen,  Bishop  of 
Rome,  254-257  A.D.,  with  whose  attitude  toward  some 
of  the  Novatianists  Cyprian  had  little  sympathy. 
The  tradition  and  practice  of  the  African  Church 
generally  had  been  to  deny  the  validity  of  baptism  by 
heretics   or    schismatics,   even    if   performed   in  the 


THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS  AND  TENDENCIES   00 

Name  of  the  Trinity.  This  custom  prevailed  also  in 
Alexandria,  Palestine,  Syria  and  Asia  Minor;  indeed 
had  been  wellnigh  constant  and  universal.  I'lUt 
Rome  had  held  the  opposite  view;  accepting  such 
baptism  as  valid.  The  Novatians  had  revived  the 
controversy,  and  Stephen  renounced  fellowship  with 
Firmilian  and  the  other  bishops  of  Asia  Minor. 
Stephen  thus  came  into  conflict  with  Cyprian,  and  the 
point  of  separation  between  them  was  almost  reached. 
(See  Ep.  72  to  Jubian,  and  Ep.  73  to  Pompeius.) 
Stephen  intimated  to  the  bishops  of  Africa  that  they 
must  conform  to  his  practice  or  he  would  have  no 
further  dealings  with  them.  A  similar  ultimatum  was 
sent  to  the  Eastern  bishops.  In  September,  256  a.d., 
eighty-seven  bishops  from  all  the  African  provinces 
assembled  in  Carthage  under  Cyprian's  presidency. 
All  voted  against  the  validity  of  baptism  by  heretics. 
The  martyrdom  of  Stephen  in  August,  257  a.d.,  re- 
lieved the  tension.  His  successor  restored  harmony 
by  dropping  the  whole  question;  each  side  holding  to 
its  own  practice.  The  matter  was  finally  settled  at 
the  Council  of  Aries  314  a.d.,  after  which  the  Roman 
practice  finally  prevailed  in  all  cases  where  the  cor- 
rect form  of  baptism  was  assured. 

Under  Valerian  (254-259  a.d.)  persecution  broke 
out  again  in  257,  and  Cyprian  was  banished  and  be- 
headed in  258. 

One  other  African  writer  flourished  in  the  time  of 
Cyprian;  Commodian,  the  earliest  representative  of 
Christian  Latin  verse.     He  was  born  a  pagan,  and 


100  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 


was  converted  to  Christianity  by  reading  the  Bible. 
He  wrote  in  rhyming  hexameters,  in  rather  barbarous 
Latin,  mostly  apologetic;  "Against  the  Gods  of  the 
Nations,"  and  "Against  Jews  and  Gentiles." 

Between  the  persecution  of  Valerian  and  that  of 
Diocletian,  that  is,  during  the  last  forty  years  of 
the  third  century,  the  history  of  the  Church  in  the 
entire  West  is  wholly  lost  to  sight. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Maurice,  F.  D. — Moral  and  Metaphysical  Philosophy.  2 
vols.     Lond.,  1873. 

Bigg,  Charles. —  Christian  Platonists  of  Alexandria.  N.  Y., 
1 886. 

Allen,  A.  V.  G. — Continuity  of  Christian  Thought,    pp.  16-129. 

Burkitt,  F.  C. — Early  Eastern  Christianity.     Lond.,  1904. 

Lloyd,  Julius. — The  North  African  Church. 

Benson,  E.  W. — Cyprian  :  Life  and  Times  and  Work.  Lond., 
1897. 

Fairweather,  W. —  Origen  and  Greek  Patristic  Theology. 
N.  Y.,  1901. 

Bunsen.  C.  C.  J. — Hippolytus  and  the  Church  of  Rome.  2nd 
ed.     Lond.,  1S80. 

von  Dollinger,  J.  J.  L — Hippolytus  and  Callistus.  Edinb., 
1876. 

Taylor,  W.  E. — Hippolytus  and  the  Christian  Church. 
Lond.,  1853 

Wordsworth,  Christopher. — St.  Hippolytus.     Lond.,  1S53. 

§4.  The  Theology  of  the  Church 

The  history  of  the  formulation  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  im- 
portant chapters  in  Church  history,  and  will  help 
more  to  the  understanding  of  the  doctrine  itself  than 


THE  THEOLOGY  OF  THE  CHURCH  101 

many  chapters  of  abstract  theological  speculation. 
While  the  apologists  of  the  second  century  endeavored 
to  give  some  intellectual  form  to  the  Christian  be- 
lief, such  as  found  expression  in  the  Rule  of  Faith, 
Christian  theology  in  its  real  sense  had  its  origin  in 
connection  with  and  from  the  Gnostic  movement. 
Just  as  the  struggle  with  Marcion  led  to  the  realiza- 
tion of  the  importance  of  determining  the  Canon  of 
Scripture,  so  the  struggle  with  the  Gnostics  resulted 
in  the  beginning  of  scientific  theology  in  the  Church. 
Thus  Hellenism  supplanted  Judaism  in  Christian 
thought.  In  this  sense,  Harnack,  in  his  article  on 
Valentinus  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  calls  him 
"the  most  important  Christian  theologian  before 
Origen ;  as  being  the  first  man  in  Christendom  who, 
for  other  than  merely  apologetic  purposes,  sought  to 
fuse  together  the  results  of  Greek  philosophy  with 
the  substance  of  the  Gospels,  and  regarded  the  mani- 
festation of  Jesus  as  the  keystone  in  the  great  struc- 
ture." 

Alexandria  was  the  birthplace  and  centre  of  the- 
ology in  the  second,  third  and  fourth  centuries. 
The  first  three  centuries,  however,  are  marked  by  the 
absence  of  any  official,  constructive  establishment  of 
ecclesiastical  doctrine;  for  we  do  not  find  any  organ 
of  universal  authority  until  we  come  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  imperial  Church  and  the  oecumenical 
councils.  The  persecutions  and  the  scattered  con- 
dition of  the  Church  allowed  no  opportunity  for  it. 
But  step  by  step,  as  the  various  theories  and  inter- 


102  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

pretations  were  brought  forward,  the  Church's  con- 
sciousness of  the  Faith  fought  its  way  to  full  and 
complete  expression.  As  the  Church  extended  and 
expanded  a  great  variety  of  opinions  and  points  of 
view  developed.  On  the  one  hand  were  those  who 
came  from  schools  of  philosophy  and  who  labored  in 
the  centres  of  Greek  culture,  like  Corinth  and  Alex- 
andria; and  on  the  other,  those  who  were  converted 
from  Judaism,  or  who  sought  for  converts  among  the 
more  practical  and  less  speculative  peoples  in  Asia 
Minor,  North  Africa  and  Rome. 

The  first  teachings  were  oral;  and  tradition  filled 
a  prominent  place  and  played  a  most  important  part 
in  the  early  development  of  doctrine  and  practice. 
Later  the  collected  Christian  writings  were  only 
added  to  tradition  as  another  source  of  Christian 
teaching.  The  appeal  to  this  formed  the  basis  of 
Tertullian's  "short  and  easy  method  with  the  here- 
tics." But  the  importance  of  tradition  shows  the 
original  meaning  and  value  of  the  Apostolic  Succes- 
sion; justifying  and  confirming  it  as  the  necessary 
order  of  the  Church. 

The  real  problem  of  theology  i«  the  Personality  of 
Jesus.  Who  was  He?  What  was  His  relation  to 
God?  Logos,  Wisdom,  The  Word,  The  Son  of  God, 
The  One  sent  from  God,  were  the  answers ;  but  what 
did  these  words  mean?  The  Divinity  of  Jesus  was 
as  fixed  as  the  Unity  of  God.  But  how  to  interpret 
and  harmonize  these  two  conceptions  ?  The  Ebionite 
idea  of  a  deified  man  was  a  reaction  to  polytheism ; 


THE  THEOLOGY  OF  THE  CHURCH  103 

while  the  Docetic  theory  of  Marcion  and  the  Gnostics 
was  a  step  back  to  Pantheism.  The  doctrine  of  the 
Logos  was  the  basis  and  beginning  of  scientific  the- 
ology. This  conception  is  found  in  St.  John's  Gospel, 
and  may  be  traced  down  through  the  early  Apologists. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  Justin  Martyr  is  the 
first  Christian  writer  who  uses  the  word  Logos  in  the 
double  sense  of  'reason'  and  'Word' ;  and  Theophilus 
of  Antioch,  c.  i8o  a.d.,  is  the  first  to  use  the  term 
Trinity  (Trias)  when  he  makes  the  first  three  days  of 
creation  typical  of  the  Trinity  of  God.  The  relation 
of  the  Son  to  the  Father  was  variously  interpreted; 
and  Jesus  was  declared  to  be  God's  Son  by  incarna- 
tion or  by  adoption.  These  theories  are  ranged 
under  several  terms  which  must  be  clearly  under- 
stood: (i)  Hypostatianism  (from  hypostasis,  sub- 
stance), the  personal  and  substantial  existence  of  the 
Son,  the  pre-incarnate  Christ.  (2)  Subordinationism, 
the  subordinate  existence  of  the  Son,  as  a  lower  or 
derived  form  of  being.  Sometimes  (i)  and  (2)  were 
combined  to  indicate  a  theory  of  the  personal  dis- 
tinction of  the  Son,  yet  subordinate  in  some  respects 
to  the  Father;  the  tendency  being  to  identify  the 
proper  essence  of  the  Godhead  with  the  Father,  and 
to  ascribe  all  the  attributes  of  the  Godhead  to  the 
Son,  but  not  in  a  wholly  equal  measure.  One  form  of 
expression  placed  God  and  Christ  at  one  (Ignatius), 
without  intending  thereby  to  deny  the  true  humanity 
of  Jesus.  Another  recognized  that  in  Him  a  higher, 
preexistent  heavenly  Being  had  come   in  the    flesh 


104  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

(II  Clement),  without  intending  thereby  to  teach 
Dytheism.  A  third  saw  in  Him  a  man  in  whom 
God  had  taken  up  his  dwelling  through  His  holy 
Christ-Spirit  (Hermas),  without  intending  thereby 
to  oppose  His  divine  honor.  In  consequence  of  the 
lack  of  abstract  terminology  these  views  tended  to 
pass  over  into  each  other.  The  problem  was  brought 
to  consciousness  first  by  the  heretical,  then  by  the 
orthodox  speculation.  Thus  the  formularization  of 
the  different  solutions  was  necessitated,  so  that  they 
were  brought  into  opposition  to  each  other.  The 
second  of  the  above  three  expressions  held  its  place 
by  reason  of  the  advancing  philosophical  conception 
of  the  Logos,  and  occupied  the  chief  position  among 
the  theologians.  The  Apologists  as  well  as  the 
Anti-Gnostics  and  Alexandrians  held,  in  different 
degrees,  the  conception  of  a  divine  self-unfolding;  in 
which  the  Logos  was  considered  a  second  potency,  or 
hypostasis,  proceeding  from  God  and  subordinate  to 
Him.  The  attempt  to  give  a  separate  place  to  the 
Holy  Spirit  also,  raised  the  apprehension  of  the  in- 
troduction of  more  Gods. 

This  led  to  (3)  Monarchianism,  the  strict  assertion 
of  the  solitary  unity  of  God,  as  the  single  ruling 
principle.  In  connection  with  the  doctrine  of  the 
Logos  there  were  two  distinct  forms  of  this  theory: 

(a)  Dynamistic  Monarchianism,  regarding  Christ  as  a 
man  who  had  been  endued  in  the  fullest  measure  and 
to  a  supreme  degree  with  divine  wisdom  and  power; 

(b)  Modal  Monarchianism,  asserting  the  fullness  of 


THE  THEOLOGY  OF  THE  CHURCH  105 

the  Godhead  in  Christ,  seeing  in  Him  only  a  mode  of 
the  activity  of  the  Father,  or  identifying  the  Father 
with  the  Logos  (Patripassianism).  Monarchianism 
in  both  of  these  forms,  Dynamistic  and  Modal,  was 
pronounced  heretical  by  all  the  most  illustrious 
fathers  of  the  third  century;  and  Hypostasianism  was 
declared  orthodox.  There  was  latent,  however,  an 
element  of  error  in  the  form  of  Subordinationism  ;  and 
Modal  Monarchianism  approached  very  near  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  Church,  by  adopting  the  doctrine  of 
sameness  of  essence  (homoousia),  in  Father  and  Son. 
The  orthodox  combination  of  the  two  was  reached  in 
the  third  century  in  Homoousian-hypostasianism;  to 
which  Origen's  doctrine  of  the  eternal  generation  of 
the  Son  from  the  Father  led  the  way,  and  this  finally 
attained  universal  acceptance  in  the  fourth  century. 
But  all  this  was  brought  out  and  its  full  understanding 
and  complete  realization  made  possible  only  by  dis- 
cussions, conflicts  and  even  heretical  opposition,  in- 
adequate attempts  at  explanation  and  formulation, 
the  course  of  which  it  is  necessary  to  trace  through 
the  second  and  third  centuries. 

We  note  first  the  Alogians,  who  appeared  in  Asia 
Minor  shortly  after  170  a.d.,  and  in  opposition  to 
the  Montanists  repudiated  the  sacred  writings  on 
which  they  based  their  doctrines  of  the  Paraclete, 
visions,  prophecies  and  the  Second  Coming.  These 
writings  were  the  Gospel  and  Apocalypse  of  St.  John. 
From  this  position  they  seemed  to  have  been  forced 
on  to  a  denial  of  the  Logos  doctrine,  which  also  rested 


106  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

mainly  on  those  two  writings.  Next  in  succession  was 
Theodotus,  called  the  Tanner,  and  said  to  have  been 
a  member  of  the  sect  of  the  Alogians.  He  went  to 
Rome  about  190  a.d.,  where  he  taught  that  Jesus  was 
a  man,  born  of  the  Virgin,  by  the  operation  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  in  accordance  with  a  divine  decree. 
Jesus,  he  taught,  grew  up  with  a  most  pious  and 
holy  character,  and  upon  him  the  Holy  Ghost,  the 
Christ  spirit,  came  at  his  baptism ;  so  he  is  called 
Christ,  the  Son  of  God.  He  could  not  be  called  God, 
at  least  until  after  his  resurrection,  which  fact,  as 
well  as  the  virgin  birth,  was  admitted;  nor  did  he 
repudiate,  openly  at  any  rate,  the  writings  of  St. 
John,  as  the  Alogians  had  done.  He  was  followed 
by  a  second  Theodotus,  a  banker  or  money  changer, 
who,  at  Rome,  about  210  a.d.,  founded  a  community 
called  Melchizedekians,  affirming  that  Melchizedek 
was  more  glorious  than  Christ,  as  the  type  or  pattern 
is  superior  to  the  copy.  They  succeeded  in  getting  a 
bishop,  Natalis ;  but  he  soon  repented  at  the  feet  of 
Zephyrinus,  the  Bishop  of  Rome.  They  were 
accused  of  following  a  strictly  literal  and  gram- 
matical exegesis,  like  that  which  characterized 
the  Antiochian  school,  discarding  the  usual  al- 
legorical method.  Their  last  exponent  was  Arte- 
mon,  or  Artemas,  who  lived  possibly  as  late  as 
270  A  D.,  and  had  some  connection  with  Paul  of 
Samosata.  This  seems  to  have  been  the  begin- 
ning of  the  theory  known  as  Dynamistic  Monarchi- 
anism,  and  formed  a  connecting  link  with  the  early 


THE  THEOLOGY  OF  THE  CHURCH  107 

Ebionism    on   account    of   the   similarity  of   expres- 
sions used. 

We  turn  now  to  the  second  form  of  the  Monarchian 
doctrine,  the  Modal;  which,  admitting  the  divine 
personality  of  the  Son  and  Holy  Ghost,  regarded  them 
as  modes  or  manifestations  of  one  single  divine  per- 
sonality. Instead  of  affirming  that  Jesus  was  endued 
with  a  divine  power,  they  declared  that  he  was  the 
Father  Himself,  in  a  new  form  of  activity.  This  is 
called  the  Patripassian  theory;  that  the  Father  Him- 
self became  man  and  suffered  on  the  cross.  In  its  first 
crude  form  it  was  set  forth  by  Praxeas,  a  confessor  of 
Asia  Minor,  who  appeared  in  Rome,  and,  unopposed, 
expounded  his  views.  He  supported  and  perhaps 
encouraged  the  Roman  Bishop  Victor  in  his  condem- 
nation of  Montanism,  and  thus  won  Victor's  approval 
of  his  Christological  theory.  This  called  forth  Ter- 
tullian's  famous  remark,  that  "Praxeas  in  Rome 
performed  two  works  of  the  devil;  he  had  expelled 
prophecy  and  brought  in  heresy ;  he  had  driven  away 
the  Paraclete  and  crucified  the  Father."  Probably, 
like  the  Alogians,  Praxeas  and  his  followers  refused 
to  admit  the  doctrine  of  the  Logos  into  their  Chris- 
tology;  fearing  that  in  connection  with  the  Hyposta- 
sian  doctrine  it  would  give  an  advantage  to  Gnos- 
ticism. The  general  teaching  of  the  Church  was  not 
fully  developed  nor  sharply  defined;  and  it  was  in  the 
very  effort  to  give  definiteness  and  consistency  that 
these  teachers  labored  to  harmonize  the  doctrine  of 
the  Fatherhood  of  God,  the  person  of  Christ,  and  the 


108  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

activity  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  one  divine  unity.  The 
solution  seemed  to  be  in  the  Logos  doctrine;  yet  Jus- 
tin seems  almost  to  say  that  the  Logos  is  another 
God.  The  original  Godhead  was  identified  with  the 
Father;  and  the  Logos  came  into  being  as  a  free, 
temporal  act  of  the  divine  will  for  the  purpose  of 
creation.  This  Logos  then  became  incarnate  in  Jesus 
Christ.  This  was  Hypostasianism ;  but  it  also  in- 
volved an  element  of  subordination,  and  made  a  dis- 
tinction not  merely  in  the  divine  being  but  in  the 
divine  attributes.  Hippolytus  in  Rome  and  Ter- 
tullian  in  Africa  both  emphasized  the  Logos  in 
opposition  to  the  Theodotians  and  to  Praxeas.  Ter- 
tullian  carried  the  doctrine  a  step  further  by  what  he 
called  the  three  stages  of  filiation:  (i)  the  eternal 
immanent  state  of  being  of  the  Son  in  the  Father; 
(2)  the  forthcoming  of  the  Son,  taking  his  place  at 
the  side  of  the  Father  for  creation;  (3)  the  actual 
Incarnation. 

Noetus  of  Smyrna  followed  Praxeas  in  the  assertion 
that  the  Son  of  God  is  His  own  and  not  another's 
son.  The  doctrine  was  brought  to  Rome,  where  a 
Noetian  sect  was  formed.  Hippolytus  was  its  most 
vigorous  opponent.  He  insisted  on  the  unity  of  God, 
but  taught  that  the  Logos  became  perfect  Son  first  in 
the  Incarnation.  Callistus,  Bishop  of  Rome,  tried  to 
harmonize  the  two;  but  neither  party  accepted  his 
views,  and  both  were  excommunicated  by  Callistus, 
who  really  helped  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  later 
teaching.     He  affirmed  that  God  is  a  Spirit  as  giving 


THE  THEOLOGY  OF  THE  CHURCH  109 


life.  He  is  called  Logos.  Father  and  Son,  a  dis- 
tinction in  name.  The  Spirit  which  became  in- 
carnate in  the  Virgin  is  identical  with  the  Father. 
The  man  Jesus,  the  manifestation,  is  the  Son.  The 
Father  did  not  suffer  as  such,  but  in  and  with  the 
Son.  Hippolytus  called  this  Noetian,  and  the  Noe- 
tians  called  it  Dytheism. 

Following  the  Noetians,  Beryllus  of  Bostra  in 
Arabia  marks  a  still  higher  form  of  Modalism,  or 
Patripassianism.  He  denied  the  independent  deity 
of  Christ,  but  recognized  in  Him  the  deity  of  the 
Father,  and  declared  Him  to  be  a  new  form  or 
appearance  {prosopon),  or  manifestation  of  God.  He 
was  convinced  of  his  error  by  Origen  at  an  Arabian 
synod  244  a. d.,  and  retracted.  Here  Origen  took  the 
next  great  step  toward  the  solution  which  the  Church 
was  seeking.  All  previous  teachers  regarded  the 
Logos  as  coming  into  separate  and  distinct  existence 
at  and  for  the  creation,  and  more  fully  in  the  Incar- 
nation. Origen  asserted  the  eternal  generation  of 
the  Son;  declaring  the  relation  an  eternal  one,  and 
maintaining  the  eternal  necessity  of  the  Son  to  the 
Father,  as  the  rays  to  the  light.  The  generation  of 
the  Son  is  therefore  an  eternally  continued  exercise 
of  living  power.  He  did  oppose  the  phrase,  'of  the 
essence  of  the  Father,'  as  it  seemed  to  favor  the 
emanation  theory  of  the  Gnostics;  and  he  maintained 
a  difference  of  essence  in  opposition  to  the  Patri- 
passian   Homooiisios.     He   still   left   some  traces  of 


no  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

Subordinationism,  but  only  of  existence  or  origin,  not 
of  essence  or  nature. 

The  Noetians  were  succeeded  by  Sabellius,  who 
made  a  great  advance  by  including  the  necessary 
existence  and  activity  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  a  pro- 
found development  of  Modal  Monarchianism.  God, 
he  taught,  is  a  single  unity,  monas,  admitting  of  no 
distinctions.  For  the  work  of  redemption  He 
appears  in  three  different  and  successive  forms  of 
being,  each  of  which  includes  the  complete  fullness 
of  the  One.  These  are  not  hypostases,  but  prosopa; 
marks,  appearances,  roles  or  characters  in  which 
God  successively  manifests  Himself  in  the  world. 
After  the  Character  of  the  Father  gave  the  Law  He 
returned  into  His  original  Being;  appearing  again 
through  the  Incarnation  as  the  Son,  returning  in  the 
Ascension;  then  revealing  Himself  as  the  Holy  Spirit 
to  accomplish  the  perfect  sanctification  of  the 
Church,  after  which  He  will  return  into  the  original 
eternal  Unity,  and  God  will  be  all  in  all.  This  was 
answered  by  Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  at  a  synod 
261  A.D.,  in  terms  of  extreme  Subordinationism.  When 
Dionysius,  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  was  informed  of 
these  proceedings  he  corrected  his  colleague  of 
Alexandria,  in  a  synod  at  Rome  262  a.d.,  and  issued  a 
treatise  in  which  he  affirmed  Hypostasianism  against 
Sabellius,  and  the  homoousios  against  Dionysius,  who 
acknowledged  his  error  and  expressed  his  agreement 
with  Rome. 

At  the  same  time,  the  theory  of  Dynamic  Monarch- 


THE  THEOL OG Y  OF  THE  CHURCH  1 1 1 

ianism,  which  had  expired  with  Artemon,  was  revived 
in  the  East  by  Paul  of  Samosata,  Bishop  of  Antioch. 
He  affirmed  the  one  person  or  prosopon  of  God ; 
admitting  a  distinction  of  Father,  Son  or  Logos,  and 
Holy  Spirit  or  Wisdom,  the  last  Two  being  essentially 
identical  attributes  of  the  First.  He  held  the  dis- 
tinction of  the  revealing  Logos  and  the  immanent 
Logos;  one  operative  in  the  prophets,  the  other  latent 
in  God.  The  personality  of  Christ  was  in  His 
humanity.  He  acknowledged  the  supernatural  birth 
from  the  Virgin,  and  regarded  Jesus  as  working  His 
way  upward  by  his  unique  excellence  to  divinity. 
It  took  three  synods  (264-268  a.d.),  to  discover  his 
heresy,  and  then  he  was  excommunicated.  Another 
bishop  was  appointed  in  his  place,  but  by  favor  of 
Queen  Zenobia  he  kept  his  see.  But  after  Zenobia 
was  conquered  by  Aurelian  272  a.d.,  the  emperor  left 
the  decision  to  the  bishops  of  Rome  and  of  Italy. 
At  one  of  the  synods  the  term  homoousios  was  con- 
demned; but  we  cannot  tell  whether  it  was  because 
Paul  himself  employed  it,  or  charged  it  on  his  oppo- 
nents, trying  to  convict  them  of  Sabellianism  and  so 
forcing  them  to  condemn  the  term  in  self-defence. 
This  is  the  way  the  question  stood  when  it  was  re- 
opened in  Alexandria  in  the  fourth  century. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Harnack,  A. — History  of  Dogma.     II,  pp.  231-380. 
Domer,   J.  A. — History  of   the   Doctrine   of  the    Person  of 
Christ.     I,  pp.  253-326.     II,pp.  1-201. 


112  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

§5.  The  Intellectual  Attack 

The  intellectual  attack  against  Christianity  in  the 
second  century  was  continued  in  the  third.  Philo- 
stratus  wrote  a  "Life  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana,"  highly 
idealized  and  representing  him  as  a  heathen  counter- 
part of  Christ.  The  work  shows  the  religious  ten- 
dency of  philosophy ;  and,  although  not  so  intended, 
was  an  indirect  tribute  to  Christianity. 

Ammonius  Saccas,  a  Pythagorean  who  about  the 
middle  of  the  third  century  lived  and  taught  in 
Alexandria,  tried  to  combine  the  Platonic  and  Aristo- 
telian philosophies  with  religious  ideas  learned  from 
Christianity,  which  he  sought  to  supersede  by  his  own 
system.  His  most  distinguished  disciple,  and  also 
the  most  talented  and  profound  of  all  the  Neo-Pla- 
tonists,  was  Plotinus,  a  teacher  of  philosophy  at 
Rome  about  250-270  a.d.  He  sought  to  reconstruct 
a  religious  system  out  of  Platonism,  which  would  take 
the  place  of  Christianity.  His  most  celebrated 
scholar,  who  also  wrote  his  life  and  collected  his 
writings,  was  Porphyry,  who  taught  in  Rome,  and 
died  there  304  a.d.  As  Philostratus  sought  to  por- 
tray a  heathen  Christ,  so  he  sought  to  give  to  pagan- 
ism a  heathen  Bible.  He  was  regarded  as  the  bitter- 
est, most  implacable  enemy  of  Christianity;  though 
only  a  few  fragments  of  his  work  remain.  His  prin- 
cipal attack  seems  to  have  been  made  against  the 
Scriptures.  He  and  his  disciple  Jamblichus  wrote 
the  life   of   Pythagoras;   whom    they  sought  to   put 


MAN!  AND  MANICHjEISM  113 

in  the  place  of  Christ.  The  same  line  of  thought 
reappears  in  Hierocles,  c.  300  a.d.,  the  pro- 
curator of  Bithynia,  who  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
Diocletian  persecution;  known  only  by  the  refutation 
by  Eusebius.  He  put  forward  Apollonius  of  Tyana 
as  a  greater  and  better  attested  miracle-worker  than 
Christ. 

All  these  efforts  show  that  it  was  well  understood 
that  in  order  to  cope  with  the  growing  power  of 
Christianity  it  was  necessary  for  paganism  to  undergo 
a  thorough  reformation  and  reconstruction,  and  that 
a  personal  leader  must  be  found  and  set  up;  for  the 
personality  and  life  of  Christ  were  felt  even  by  the 
pagans  to  be  the  great  centre  and  source  of  the 
significance  and  strength  of  Christianity. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

See  the  Histories  of  Philosophy,  Ueberweg,  Erdmann, 
Maurice,  etc. 

Whittaker,  T. — Neo-Platonists.     Camb.,  1901. 

Elsee,  C — Neoplatonism  in  relation  to  Christianity.  N.  Y., 
1908. 

Rdville,  A. — Apollonius  of  Tyana.     Trans.     1866. 

Bigg,  Charles. —  Neoplatonism.     Lond.,  1895. 

Jones,  Rufus  M. — Studies  in  Mystical  Religion.     1909. 

Hunt,  Mrs.  John. — The  Wards  of  Plotinus. 

Theurgia,  or  the  Egyptian  Mysteries. —  lamblichus.  Trans. 
N.  Y.,  1911. 

§6.  Mani  and  Manich^ism 

This  remarkable  system  had  its  origin  in  Persia 
in  the  middle  of  the  third  century.  Although  in- 
dependent of  Gnosticism  it  was  similar  in  its  theories 


114  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

of  emanation  and  docetism;  but  differed  by  using 
ideas  of  salvation  as  a  mere  varnish  for  Babylonian 
and  Chaldean  theosophy,  basing  the  system  on 
Persian  dualism.  The  Persian  Mani,  or  Manes,  is 
regarded  as  the  founder.  He  was  born  about  216 
A.D.  and  was  flayed  alive  by  the  Persian  king  about 
276  A.D.  There  are  two  accounts  of  his  life  and 
doctrines ;  one  by  Eastern  or  Persian  authorities  (the 
most  important  for  his  life)  and  the  other  by  Western 
or  Christian  writers  (more  valuable  for  the  doctrine). 
These  sources  differ  materially,  probably  owing 
largely  to  the  different  stages  of  development  through 
which  the  doctrine  passed.  His  system  was  a  thor- 
ough-going materialistic  dualism,  making  no  dis- 
tinction between  the  physical  and  the  ethical.  It 
started  with  a  realm  of  darkness  and  a  realm  of  light. 
Satan  with  his  demons  ruled  the  former,  which  con- 
sisted of  five  elements:  lurid  flame,  scorching  fire, 
grimy  slime,  dark  clouds  and  raging  tempest.  The 
good  God  with  His  aeons  and  countless  beings  of 
light  ruled  the  other;  which  consisted  of  bright  light, 
quickening  fire,  clear  water,  hot  air  and  soft  wind. 
These  contended  with  each  other;  not  as  forms  of 
spiritual  powers,  but  as  primal  material  elements. 
Satan  invaded  the  realm  of  light  and  the  struggle 
began.  The  God  of  Light  sent  the  primitive  man 
with  the  five  pure  elements  to  fight  against  him ;  but 
being  defeated,  he  was  delivered  by  the  Living  Spirit, 
A  part  of  his  light,  however,  was  captured  by  the 
darkness ;  and  the  ordered  universe  was  built  up  out 


AfA  NI  A  ND  MA  NIC H^ ISM  1 1  S 

of  the  mixed  elements  as  a  beginning  of  redemption, 
which  is  a  physical  deliverance  of  fractions  of  light 
from  the  darkness.  In  order  to  check  this  process 
of  redemption,  Satan  produces  the  first  man  Adam, 
and  in  him  concentrates  the  light  he  has  seized  in 
order  to  be  able  to  watch  over  it  and  control  it. 
Thus,  here  also  the  creation  is  the  work  of  evil. 
Since,  however,  on  account  of  this  concentration  in 
Adam,  the  light  predominates.  Eve,  in  whom  dark- 
ness rules,  is  associated  with  him.  Adam  falls  into 
sin;  and  Seth  is  born,  in  whom  the  light  again  pre- 
dominates. 

Thus,  over  men,  demons  and  angels  of  light  strive; 
the  latter's  power  predominating  in  Adam,  Seth, 
Noah,  Abraham,  Zoroaster,  Buddha,  Jesus  (not  the 
historical  Jesus,  who  was  merely  the  Jewish  Messiah) 
and  last,  the  Paraclete  Mani.  The  ethical  system  is 
in  harmony  with  this  extreme  dualism.  The  funda- 
mental principle  of  morality  is  physical  abstinence 
from  all  contact  with  the  elements  of  darkness,  and 
the  assimilation  of  the  elements  of  light.  It  finds  its 
comprehensive  expression  in  "the  three  seals  of  the 
perfect";  of  the  mouth,  the  hand,  and  the  breast. 
First,  abstinence  from  evil  speaking,  flesh  eating  and 
wine  drinking;  second,  from  all  common  toil;  third, 
from  all  sensual  indulgence.  The  adherents  were 
divided  into  two  classes:  the  Hearers  or  Catechu- 
mens, and  the  Elect  or  Perfect;  like  the  ordinary 
Christians,  and  the  monks  among  the  Christians. 
The  Hearers  were  not  so  strictly  bound  by  the  three 


116  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

seals ;  and  could  engage  in  trade  and  agriculture,  and 
even  marry,  receiving  absolution  for  the  necessary 
activities  in  order  that  they  might  minister  to  the 
Elect,  who  were  above  all  terrestrial  cares.  The 
Manichasan  Church  was  thoroughly  organized.  Mani 
was  the  head;  and  after  his  death  was  still  regarded 
as  the  spiritual  prince,  and  represented  by  a  pope  or 
Iman  at  Babylon,  with  a  body  of  twelve  Apostles  or 
Masters  as  administrators.  There  were  seventy-two 
bishops  with  elders  and  deacons  as  necessity 
required.  Their  worship  was  simple  and  orderly. 
Fasting  occupied  a  quarter  of  the  year.  Prayer  was 
made  four  times  a  day,  and  toward  (if  not  to)  the  Sun 
and  Moon,  the  highest  manifestations  of  light.  They 
claimed  to  possess  gnosis,  the  perfect  and  complete 
knowledge  of  all  things;  by  which  the  redemption  of 
the  children  of  light  is  to  be  accomplished. 

In  spite  of  the  severe  persecutions  throughout  the 
whole  Persian  empire  after  the  execution  of  Mani, 
their  numbers  increased  rapidly,  East  and  West.  In 
the  East  many  of  the  earlier  Gnostics  and  Marcionist 
communities  joined  them.  North  Africa  became  the 
centre  of  its  Western  movement,  whence  it  spread  to 
Spain  and  Italy.  An  edict  of  Diocletian,  c.  290 
A.D.  (though  held  by  some  not  to  be  genuine)  order- 
ing the  Proconsul  of  Africa  to  burn  its  leaders,  showed 
their  growing  importance.  The  Christian  Emperors 
continued  to  pass  laws  against  them.  Yet  the  sys- 
tem was  attractive  and  powerful,  spreading  very 
rapidly  in  the  West.    Augustine  was  a  Hearer  for 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  117 

nine  years,   on  his  way  from    pagan    philosophy   to 
Christianity. 

Its  spread  was  due  to  the  combination  of  a  rigid 
materialistic  dualism  with  an  extremely  simple  spirit- 
ual worship,  and  a  strict  ascetic  (not  too  difficult) 
morality,  supplemented  by  the  attractive  personality 
of  its  founder.  It  had  a  great  capacity  for  adaptation 
and  a  place  and  ambition  for  each  individual.  It  gave 
a  simple  and  easy  solution  of  the  problem  of  good  and 
evil;  the  great  problem  of  the  period  from  the  second 
to  the  fifth  century.  Its  simple  creed  and  repudiation 
of  the  Old  Testament  were  also  in  its  favor.  The 
Paulicians  in  the  eighth  century,  the  Bogomiles  in  the 
eleventh  and  the  Albigenses  in  the  thirteenth,  con- 
tinued some  of  its  teachings;  while  charges  of  holding 
some  of  its  doctrines  were  brought  against  the 
Knights  Templar  of  the  fourteenth  century.  It  is 
possible  to  find  traces  of  its  influence  in  the  teaching 
of  monastic  asceticism  and  extreme  predestination. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCE 
Harnack,  A. — History  of  'Do^xwtl^  f)assini.     See  Index. 

§7.  The  Catholic  Church 

(i)   Organization;   The  Hierarchy 

This  is  preeminently  the  Age  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  the  first  and  simplest  stage  of  its  complete 
development,  independent  of  the  Empire  or  any  secu- 
lar power,  and  not  yet  subject  to  the  papacy;  find- 
ing its  unity  in  the  solidarity  of  the  episcopate,  as 


118  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

set  forth  by  Cyprian  and  maintained  generally  in  this 
period.  The  spread  of  the  Church,  its  increased  im- 
portance, with  the  extension  and  growing  complexity 
of  its  functions,  not  less  than  the  struggle  against 
heresy  within  and  persecution  without,  emphasized 
the  importance  of  unity  and  uniformity,  and  added 
greatly  to  the  power  and  authority  of  the  episcopate. 
The  bishops  were  coming  to  have  a  more  extended 
power  than  that  of  head  of  the  local  Church,  in  cases 
where  the  original  single  community  expanded  into 
several  congregations.  As  these  new  congregations 
formed,  they  would  naturally  remain  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  bishop,  and  receive  from  him  a  presby- 
ter acting  as  his  delegate.  Thus  was  added  to  the 
presbyter  the  new  dignity  of  presiding  at  the  Holy 
Eucharist  as  the  head  of  his  own  community.  The 
bishops  retained  and  developed  the  functions  of 
maintaining  unity  and  administering  discipline.  In- 
stead of  the  local  community  reproducing  the  body  of 
Christ's  own  day,  it  was  the  universal,  the  Catholic 
Church,  with  Christ  as  its  head;  and  the  bishops  of 
the  several  communities  were  regarded  as  directly  or 
indirectly  the  successors  of  the  Apostles,  preserving 
the  apostolic  faith,  writings  and  administration,  and 
establishing  a  guarantee  of  the  ecclesiastical  order. 
The  bishops  became  also  the  heirs  of  the  spiritual 
functions  and  offices  of  the  prophets,  teachers  and 
evangelists ;  and  so  appeared  doubly  as  the  continua- 
tion of  the  apostolate  and  its  authority  in  the  Church. 
In  connection  with  the  territorial  extension  of  the 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  119 

bishop's  jurisdiction  we  note,  as  an  experimental 
substitute  for  the  delegated  presbyter,  the  appoint- 
ment of  chorepiscopi,  or  country  bishops,  having, 
however,  no  power  of  ordaining,  except  by  a  com- 
mission from  the  city  bishop  to  whom  they  were  sub- 
ject. The  custom  was  abolished  in  the  next  century 
and  forbidden  by  canon  law.  But  if  presbyters  were 
to  have  the  authority  to  minister  to  the  congregation, 
they  must  derive  it  from  the  only  source  from  which 
it  could  be  obtained,  the  episcopate.  The  question  of 
ordination,  therefore,  was  of  the  highest  importance. 
In  this  rite  was  imparted  to  the  recipient  the  gift  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  which  qualified  him  for  the  work  of 
the  ministry,  whose  chief  function  was  to  be  the  sacer- 
dotal offering  for  the  people.  The  full  hierarchical 
view  was  completely  set  forth  by  Cyprian,  on  the  occa- 
sions of  the  various  ecclesiastical  conflicts  in  which 
he  was  engaged.  He  found  the  unity  of  the  Church 
in  the  whole  body  of  the  bishops  as  a  consolidated 
corporation,  acting  for  the  whole  Church,  having  its 
origin  in  the  apostle  Peter,  from  whom  the  whole 
episcopate  is  derived;  each  bishop  representing  the 
complete  significance  of  the  episcopate,  and  as  such 
equal  to  every  other  bishop. 

The  Church  thus  rested  upon  the  whole  episcopate 
as  the  continuance  of  the  apostolic  office  and  equipped 
with  all  the  apostolic  powers.  In  this  development 
the  sacerdotal  idea  of  the  priesthood  found  full  ex- 
pression; i.e.,  the  union  of  the  conception  of  the  office 
which  ruled  the  community  as  divinely  instituted  and 


120  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

claiming  obedience  by  divine  right,  with  the  con- 
ception of  it  as  an  office  of  priestly  mediation  between 
God  and  man.  According  to  Cyprian,  the  totality  of 
the  divine  influence  for  all  the  rest  of  the  community 
belonged  to  the  bishop.  While  the  supreme  leadership 
and  most  important  functions  belonged  to  the  bishops, 
and  the  episcopate  was  regarded  as  the  source  of  all 
sacerdotal  authority,  yet  the  close  association  of  the 
presbyters  with  the  bishops  in  their  origin  by  the 
Apostles  caused  the  bishops  to  be  bound  by  the  ad- 
vice of  the  presbyters  in  administration,  and  allowed 
them  the  exercise  of  a  greater  independence  in  an  in- 
creasing number  of  sacerdotal  functions.  The  dea- 
cons by  their  appointment  and  office  were  from  the 
beginning  closely  associated  with  the  bishops  as  they 
had  been  with  the  Apostles,  as  assistants  and  agents. 
With  the  increasing  numbers  and  the  growing  im- 
portance and  extended  spiritual  functions  of  the 
bishops  and  presbyters,  a  greater  prominence  was 
given  to  the  deacons,  who  from  the  first  had  had  the 
principal  charge  of  the  charitable  works  of  the 
Church.  These  formed  a  link  between  the  higher 
clergy  and  the  laity ;  in  addition  to  preaching  and 
baptizing  by  the  bishop's  authority,  they  kept  order 
in  the  Churches,  received  the  offerings,  prepared  for 
the  Eucharist,  read  the  Gospel,  administered  the 
bread  and  wine  to  those  who  were  present  and  carried 
it  to  those  who  were  absent  on  account  of  sickness. 
Thus  in  many  ways  they  were  the  direct  agents  of 
the  bishops;  at  their  head  was  the  archdeacon  who 


THE  CA  THOLIC  CHURCH  121 

became  one  of  the  most  important  officers  of  the 
Church,  styled  somewhat  later  the  "eye  of  the  bish- 
op" and  often  succeeding  him  in  the  Episcopate. 

The  bishops,  priests  and  deacons  constituted  the 
so-called  major  or  higher  orders;  but  the  needs  of  the 
Church  occasioned  a  still  further  extension  of  the 
ranks  of  the  clergy,  and  the  minor  orders  were 
formed;  these  were  sub-deacons,  acolytes,  exorcists, 
cantors,  catechists,  readers  and  door-keepers.  Those 
who  were  destined  for  the  higher  offices  passed,  in 
most  instances,  through  a  period  of  probation  in  these 
lower  stations;  only  the  sub-deacons,  however,  were 
eligible  to  the  higher  orders.  Most  important  were 
the  sub-deacons,  direct  assistants  of  the  deacons,  on 
account  of  the  increase  of  the  duties  of  the  diaconate 
and  the  usual  limitation  of  the  number  to  the  seven 
originally  appointed  by  the  Apostles  (Acts  vi  :6).  In 
Rome  they  also  were  seven  in  number. 

The  order  of  Reader  was  the  earliest;  and  special 
interest  attaches  to  it  as  it  is  found  in  the  New 
Testament  and  was  regarded  as  possessing  a  special 
gift  similar  to  that  of  prophecy.  At  first  he  had  a 
regular  ordination  by  the  laying  on  of  hands  and  by 
the  delivery  of  the  book  which  he  was  to  read.  In 
the  Apostolic  Ordinances  he  is  classed  with  the  three 
higher  orders  and  is  regarded  as  filling  the  place  of 
an  evangelist.  But  as  the  bishops  and  presbyters 
gradually  assumed  the  duties  of  preaching  and  ex- 
pounding the  Scriptures,  his  position  fell  back  until 
it  was  next  to  the  lowest  of  the  minor  orders,  though 


122  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

he  still  retained  his  honorable  name.  (Harnack, 
Sources  of  the  Apostolic  Canons,  with  Treatise  on  the 
Origin  of  the  Readership  by  Owen,  Lond.,  1895.) 
The  Acolytes  were  the  personal  attendants  of  a  bishop 
or  presbyter.  The  Exorcists  dealt  with  those  pos- 
sessed of  evil  spirits  over  whom  they  had  to  repeat 
the  public  prayers  and  the  formula  of  exorcism.  The 
Cantors  led  in  services  of  praise.  The  Catechists  were 
appointed  in  the  larger  churches  for  the  instruction 
of  the  catechumens,  and  Interpreters  to  translate  and 
interpret  the  Scripture  lessons  where  there  was  need, 
as  in  the  churches  of  North  Africa  among  those 
speaking  the  Punic  tongue.  The  Janitores  occupied 
the  lowest  position  and  kept  the  doors  in  order  to 
prevent  the  intrusion  of  improper  persons.  In  a  way, 
all  these  shared  the  lower  duties  of  the  deacons, 
whose  growing  importance  and  occupation  with 
higher  services  made  some  such  division  necessary. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Harnack,  A. —  Constitution  and  Law.  pp.  175-258.  Criticism 
of  Sohm's  Theory. 

Lovvrie,  Walter. — The  Church  and  I  ts  Organization.  Based  on 
Sohm.     N.  Y.,  1904. 

Gore,  Charles. — Orders  and  Unity. 

Moberly. — Ministerial  Priesthood. 

Falconer,  J.  W. — From  Apostle  to  Priest.     Edinb.,  1900. 

(2)   TJie  Synods 

Synods  were  not  originated  by  the  Church,  having 
been  in  frequent  use  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor  before 
the   Roman    Conquest,  and  continuing  in  the  chief 


THE  CA  THOLIC  CHURCH  123 

cities  of  the  provinces  of  the  Empire.  The  earliest 
Christian  synod  was  the  Council  of  Jerusalem  (Acts 
xv),  but  synods  came  into  general  use  in  connection 
with  the  Montanist  movement  and  the  Easter  con- 
troversies of  the  second  century.  The  bishops  of  one 
and  the  same  province  were  by  community  of  interest 
specially  dependent  upon  each  other,  and  by  the  be- 
ginning of  the  third  century  provincial  synods  had 
probably  become  fixed  and  regular  institutions  in 
some  parts  of  the  Church.  The  presbyters  took  part 
with  the  bishops;  deacons  and  laymen  were  present, 
though  not  allowed  to  sit.  The  letters  of  Cyprian 
show  that,  except  in  time  of  persecution,  the  Synod 
of  Africa  met  regularly  in  the  spring  and  sometimes 
also  in  the  autumn.  They  did  much  for  the  main- 
tenance and  uniformity  of  discipline,  and  guided  the 
developing  theological  formularization.  Many  of  the 
synods  had  an  influence  beyond  the  division  of  the 
Empire  in  which  they  were  held.  From  all  these 
synods  the  definite  decisions  were  officially  announced 
by  the  bishops  in  the  so-called  synodal  rescripts  or 
decrees.  The  course  of  development  leads  directly 
from  these  to  the  synods  of  the  whole  Empire,  con- 
vened by  the  Emperor. 

(3)   TJie  Metropolitans 

Inasmuch  as  the  synods  were  held  in  the  provincial 
capital,  the  bishop  of  that  city  presided,  and  thus  be- 
came the  medium  of  relationship  for  the  other  bishops 
and   brought  them    into   connection  with    the    rest 


124  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

of  the  Church.  Thus  the  bishop  of  the  principal  or 
metropolitan  city  came  to  have  a  sort  of  superin- 
tendence over  the  other  bishops  of  the  province,  and 
a  special  preeminence,  such  as  the  right  to  call  and 
preside  at  synods,  and  to  appoint  and  ordain  bishops 
in  the  province.  At  first  this  was  general  only  in  the 
East.  In  the  West,  Rome  was  the  metropolitanate 
of  a  large  part  of  Italy;  in  Africa  each  province  had 
a  primate  (in  some  cases  the  senior  bishop);  in  pro- 
consular Africa,  Carthage  was  the  general  head  of  all 
the  provinces.  But  we  do  not  find  the  institution 
elsewhere  in  the  West,  at  this  time,  on  account  of  the 
small  number  of  churches.  Among  the  metropolitans 
an  even  higher  rank  and  influence  was  held  by 
churches  claiming  an  Apostolic  foundation,  especially 
Rome,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  Ephesus,  Corinth,  Jeru- 
salem, and  (for  other  reasons)  Caesarea  and  Carthage. 
In  fact,  however,  this  arrangement  did  not  depend 
everywhere  on  the  lines  of  civil  administration,  but 
arose  out  of  the  circumstances  of  evangelization  which 
depended  on  geographical  conditions.  Indeed,  the 
name  metropolitan  does  not  appear  until  the  Council 
of  Nicaea;  and  it  was  only  after  Diocletian  had  re- 
arranged the  provincial  districts  that,  in  the  new 
provinces,  the  bishop  of  the  capital  became  the  head 
of  the  group  of  bishops,  and  the  limits  of  the  eccle- 
siastical province  coincided  with  those  of  the  im- 
perial province.  The  Council  of  Nicaea  confirmed 
the  new  arrangement;  allowing  certain  exceptions 
which  followed  the  old  lines,  especially  in  the  West, 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  125 

where    the   ancient   metropolitan    rights   had    to    be 
respected. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCE 

Harnack,  A. —  Constitution  and  Law.  pp.  105-165. 

(4)  The  Primacy  of  Rome  and  Ecclesiastical  Unity 

There  were  two  ideals  of  unity;  the  first  a  spiritual 
unity  in  Christ  and  the  second  the  visible  unity  of 
the  Roman  Empire.  But  the  realization  of  external 
unity  in  the  Church  was  from  below  upward ;  the 
single  communities  uniting  in  larger  unions,  holding 
synods,  developing  metropolitans,  gaining  a  higher 
realization  of  unity  in  the  one  Catholic  Church. 
There  was  no  central  point  of  unity.  Jerusalem 
might  have  been  such  but  its  destruction  (70  a.d.)  and 
annihilation  (135  a.d.)  had  made  that  impossible. 
The  promises  of  Christ  to  the  Apostles  in  Matthew 
xvi :  18,  19.;  xviii:  18.;  xxviii:  19,  20.;  John  xx: 
21-23,  were  interpreted  as  extending  to  the  bish- 
ops in  Apostolic  succession.  We  have  seen  how 
this  ideal  was  realized  in  the  Catholic  Church  of  the 
second  century  with  its  unity  in  tradition,  doctrine 
and  life  as  the  result  of  the  struggle  against  Montan- 
ism  and  Gnosticism.  Its  outward  and  visible  form 
and  guarantee  were  declared  by  Cyprian  to  rest  in 
the  episcopate.  Thus  the  whole  College  of  Bishops, 
representing  their  local  communities,  realized,  in  their 
totality,  the  unity  and  catholicity  of  the  Church. 
"The  Episcopate  is  one,  in  which  each  bishop  shares 
together  with  the  others."     Yet  at  best  it  was  an 


126  THE  OLD  CA  THOLIC  A  GE 

inadequate  form  of  unity  and  only  a  partial  representa- 
tion could  be  assembled  at  any  one  time  and  place. 
There  was  no  organ  of  catholicity,  no  visible  head; 
and  the  unity  was  more  ideal  than  real.  Even  the 
great  bishops  and  metropolitans  of  the  principal  sees 
could  not  serve  as  a  board  of  administration.  There 
were  various  interpretations  of  the  passage  in  Matthew 
xvi :  i8;  however,  TertuUian  applied  the  words  as 
personal  only  to  St.  Peter;  Origen,  to  all  who  share 
the  rock  faith  of  Peter;  Cyprian,  went  further,  and 
understood  it  as  declaring  that  the  foundation  of  the 
Church  rested  upon  the  one  Peter  representing  the 
unity  and  head  of  the  Apostolate,  and  thus  setting 
forth  the  unity  of  the  Church  in  the  whole  episco- 
pate. At  the  most  he  conceded  to  the  Bishop  of 
Rome  a  preeminence  of  honor.  Always,  for  him,  the 
emphasis  was  on  the  idea  of  unity  in  the  solidarity  of 
the  episcopate  of  which  St.  Peter  was  the  source  and 
symbol.  The  whole  application  therefore  belongs  to 
the  past  and  thus  has  only  a  symbolic  and  theoretical 
significance. 

Rome,  however,  was  building  up  another  interpre- 
tation ;  emphasizing  the  need  and  actual  existence  of  a 
fixed  point  of  unity  in  a  visible  head,  guaranteeing  the 
unity  and  universality,  that  is,  the  catholicity  of  the 
Church. 

At  first  the  preeminence  of  the  Roman  Church  was 
impersonal;  the  line  of  her  early  bishops  did  not  in- 
clude men  of  great  note  in  theology  or  in  administra- 
tion; but   the  Roman  community  did  attain  a  high 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  127 

reputation  and  great  influence.  This  was  due  in  part 
to  the  prestige  of  the  city  in  the  past,  and  to  its 
position  as  the  capital  and  centre  of  the  Empire. 
Rome  was  the  wealthiest  Church  in  Christendom,  and 
these  riches  were  generously  used  to  aid  poorer  com- 
munities; and  she  became  not  only  the  founder,  but 
the  nourishing  mother  of  Churches  in  the  West,  and 
as  the  only  Apostolic  See  in  the  West,  made  her  in- 
fluence felt  accordingly.  Irrespective  of  any  theo- 
retical claims,  Rome  had  a  great  share  in  the  de- 
velopment of  unity  and  the  maintenance  of  catholicity 
from  the  beginning,  (i)  She  had  been  honored  by 
the  labors  and  martyrdom  of  the  chiefest  of  the 
Apostles,  Paul  and  Peter,  and  their  graves  were  there. 
Indeed,  with  the  exception  of  John,  the  other  mis- 
sionary Apostles  had  disappeared.  (2)  Clement's 
letter  from  the  Church  of  Rome  to  the  Corinthians, 
showed  the  influence  of  Rome;  and  the  respect  paid 
to  the  Roman  Church  was  shown  by  the  fact  that  the 
letter  long  continued  to  be  read  as  Scripture  in  the 
early  Churches.  (3)  The  letter  of  Ignatius  to  the 
Romans  and  his  reference  to  their  Church  in  other 
letters  testify  to  its  high  rank  in  morals  and  in 
charity.  (4)  Rome  was  at  once  the  centre  of  heresy 
and  of  faith.  Polycarp  and  Irenseus  as  well  as  Valen- 
tinus  and  Marcion  found  a  wide  sphere  of  activity  in 
Rome.  (5)  There  had  been  preserved  a  complete 
list  of  bishops  in  succession  from  St.  Peter.  (Noth- 
ing more  is  said  about  St.  Paul.)  (6)  As  Rome  was 
the  "compendium  of  the  whole  world,"  so  it  became 


128  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

the  concentration  of  Apostolic  tradition.  Here  origi- 
nated, or  is  first  seen,  the  Rule  of  Faith,  known  in 
its  later  form  as  the  Apostles'  Creed.  The  books  of 
the  New  Testament  were  put  together  at  Rome,  and 
in  the  Easter  controversy  the  Roman  Apostolic  tra- 
dition prevailed  over  that  of  Asia  Minor.  (7)  The 
Edict  of  Callistus  (c.  218  a.d.)  relaxing  the  severity 
of  the  Church  in  the  case  of  penitents,  marks  an  era 
in  the  development  of  Rome's  authority,  and  for  the 
first  time  applies  directly  to  the  bishops  of  Rome  the 
words  spoken  to  Peter  in  Matthew  xvi :  18.  The 
sarcasm  of  Tertullian,  referring  probably  to  Callistus 
on  this  occasion,  calling  him  Pontifex  Maximus  and 
Bishop  of  the  Bishops,  was  a  prophecy  of  the  future. 
(8)  As  the  only  Apostolic  See  in  the  West,  Rome 
was  without  a  rival;  unlike  the  great  sees  of  the  East, 
where  there  were  several  Apostolic  sees.  It  was  like 
the  very  heart  of  Christendom,  the  centre  of  its  life, 
to  which  everything  Christian  flowed  and  from  which 
strength  and  influence  proceeded.  All  the  churches 
throughout  the  world  felt  the  incessant  influence  of 
Rome  in  every  respect.  (9)  As  has  been  said,  the 
primacy  was  at  first  that  of  the  community ;  but  every- 
where the  communities  were  coming  to  be  repre- 
sented and  personified  by  their  bishops,  especially  in 
the  more  important  ones ;  and  the  theory  of  the  Apos- 
tolic succession  which  did  so  much  to  raise  the  ofifice 
of  bishop  above  the  community  was  particularly  sig- 
nificant and  effective  in  Rome.  Strong  personalities 
like  Victor,  Callistus  and  Stephen  actually  put  the 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  129 

Roman  bishop  in  the  place  of  the  Roman  community; 
and  decrees  put  forth  as  decisions  of  Rome,  such  as 
those  in  the  Easter  controversy,  Montanism  and 
Monarchianism,  received  a  world-wide  significance 
and  finally  victory.  Thus  it  was  that  the  interpreta- 
tion of  Matthew  xvi:  i8  passed  over  to  the  official 
successor  of  St.  Peter;  and  "The  See  of  Peter"  is  set 
forth  as  foundation  of  the  Church,  and  Peter's  suc- 
cessor as  its  rightful  centre  of  unity  and  authority, 
(lo)  About  the  middle  of  the  third  century, 
Stephen,  following  up  the  precedent  of  Callistus, 
directly  declared,  according  to  Cyprian  (Ep.  77:1), 
that  by  virtue  of  his  primacy  he  must  be  obeyed  by 
all  new  and  later  bishops,  and  therefore  also  by  his 
fellow-bishops;  and  this  obedience  was  actually  given 
by  the  churches  of  Gaul  and  of  Spain,  as  well  as  by 
those  of  Italy;  though  resisted  by  Cyprian  and  the 
churches  of  North  Africa,  and  by  Firmilian  of  Caes- 
area.  Indeed,  appeals  came  to  the  Roman  Bishop 
from  the  churches  of  Egypt  against  their  Metropoli- 
tan, and  from  North  Africa  against  Cyprian.  (11) 
Dionysius  of  Rome  at  a  Roman  synod,  262  a.d., 
condemned  the  subordinationism  of  Dionysius  of 
Alexandria,  who  then  retracted  his  statements  and 
declared  himself  in  thorough  agreement  with  the 
Bishop  of  Rome.  (12)  Even  by  the  State  his  claim 
was  in  a  way  legalized  when  the  emperor  Aurelian  (c. 
272  A.D.)  declared  that  no  one  not  appointed  by  the 
bishops  of  Italy  and  Rome,  should  remain  in  the  See 
of  Antioch  (Euseb.    VII,    30).     (13)   The    removal 


130  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

of  the  imperial  court  from  Rome  by  Diocletian  left 
the  ecclesiastical  authority  alone  and  supreme,  free 
from  political  influence  and  intrigue. 

Hence  at  this  period  of  the  third  century  are  seen 
two  principles  of  Church  unity  branching  out;  the 
aristocratic  and  the  monarchical  contending  with 
each  other.  While  the  latter  gives  a  more  definite 
and  complete  expression  of  unity,  the  other  preserves 
the  deep,  underlying  national  distinctions  of  single 
parts  of  the  Empire,  especially  between  East  and 
West,  and  in  the  different  parts  of  each  division. 
The  correspondence  between  Firmilian  of  Csesarea, 
Stephen  of  Rome,  and  Cyprian  of  Carthage  shows 
how  wide  a  chasm  really  divided  the  one  Catholic 
Church  even  then.  Rome  never  was,  any  more  than 
she  is  to-day,  the  recognized  supreme  authoritative 
head  of  universal  catholic  Christendom;  but  her  im- 
portance and  influence  as  well  as  her  claims  were 
already  beginning  to  be  felt,  if  not  recognized;  yet 
even  Duchesne  says:  "There  was  nothing  at  the  close 
of  the  sixth  century  to  lead  us  to  foresee  that  the 
Latin  Church  would  one  day  be  more  centralized  than 
ever  the  Roman  Empire  had  been.  From  this  uni- 
versal respect  to  an  ecclesiastical  centralization  was 
a  far  cry." 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Reiian,  E. — Influence  of  Rome  on  Christianity.  Hibbert 
Lectures.     Lend.,  i8So. 

Lea,  H.  C. — Studies  in  Cliurch  History,     pp.  1 12-139  ;  288-393. 

Duchesne,  L. —  Churches  Separate  from  Rome.  Trans. 
Lend.,  1907. 


BAPTISM 


Bartoli,  Giorgio.— Primitive  Church  and  the  Primacy  of 
Rome.  Lond.,  1909.  The  work  of  a  Modernist,  formerly  a 
Jesuit. 

FHck,  A.  C. —  The  Rise  of  the  Mediaeval  Church,  pp.  71-90; 
148-163.     See  also  A.  I,  I5. 

§8.  Baptism 

At  the  end  of  the  second  century  and  by  the  be- 
ginning of  the  third,  the  service  and  theory  of  bap- 
tism became  more  elaborate.  The  candidate  was 
questioned  as  to  his  faith  beyond  a  simple  profession. 
He  renounced  the  devil,  his  pomps  and  his  angels, 
and  was  exorcised  to  be  freed  from  his  power.  The 
water  was  consecrated  and  the  candidate  anointed, 
then  baptized  by  trine  immersion  in  the  Triune  Name, 
in  running  water  if  possible,  or,  if  he  was  ill,  by  asper- 
sion with  warm  water;  then  he  was  given  milk  and 
honey  and  a  white  robe  put  on  him,  and  he  was 
anointed  again  and  received  the  imposition  of  hands 
as  an  allusion  to  his  Christian  priesthood.  Thus 
baptism  came  to  have  a  negative  and  a  positive  aspect. 
In  the  Eastern  Church  presbyters  and  deacons  were 
allowed  to  perform  the  whole  service;  but  in  the 
Western  Church  the  bishops  claimed  the  sole  right 
to  the  anointing  and  the  imposition  of  hands,  which 
therefore  tended  to  become  a  separate  service,  cele- 
brated at  a  subsequent  time,  and  called  Confirmation. 
The  baptism  of  infants  continued  to  be  practised,  and 
sponsors  were  required  — for  adults  as  witnesses  and 
guarantors,  and  for  infants  as  security  for  the  child's 
Christian  training  and  later  Confirmation. 


132  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

§9.  The  Eucharist  and  Christian  Worship 

A  still  more  marked  development  in  theory  and 
ritual  took  place  in  connection  with  the  Eucharist  or 
Lord's  Supper.  The  simple  forms  of  the  Didache  and 
of  Justin  Martyr  were  elaborated  and  filled  with  a 
more  mystical  meaning.  The  first  step  was  to  sepa- 
rate it  entirely  from  the  Agape,  or  common  evening 
meal,  and  make  it  a  distinct  service ;  changing  the  time 
of  its  observance  from  evening  to  early  morning, 
probably  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century.  It 
then  began  to  be  regarded  by  itself;  and  a  deeper 
meaning  was  found  in  it.  The  oblations  of  the  Agape 
were  retained  and  closely  connected  with  ideas  of 
thanksgiving  for  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  the  gifts  of 
nature.  The  idea  of  communion  with  Christ,  feeding 
upon  Him  as  the  nourisher  and  sustainer  of  the 
spiritual  life,  is  made  more  prominent,  as  well  as 
the  communion  of  the  faithful  with  each  other  in 
partaking  of  the  consecrated  bread  and  wine.  These 
then  became,  by  the  recital  of  the  solemn  words  of 
institution,  in  some  mystical  sacramental  way,  the 
bearers  of  Christ.  These  ideas  we  find  in  more 
material  forms  by  Irenaeus;  in  more  spiritual  con- 
ceptions by  Clement  and  Origen.  It  is  a  gift  of  God 
to  men  as  well  as  a  means  of  communion  between  God 
and  men. 

At  the  same  time  the  other  idea,  connected  with 
the  oblations  as  the  offering  of  man  to  God,  was  de- 
veloped.    First  as  oblations  of   the  gifts  of  nature, 


THE  EUCHARIST  AND  CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP  133 

then  as  the  consecrated  bread  and  wine  which  had 
become  the  spiritual  food  of  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ,  received  by  men,  were  in  turn  offered  to  God. 
This  idea  of  a  sacrifice  or  holy  offering  was  empha- 
sized also  by  the  idea  of  the  special  priesthood  of  the 
Christian  clergy,  to  which  not  only  all  the  heathen 
religions  but  the  Old  Testament  as  well,  offered  anal- 
ogies. Both  of  these  sets  of  analogies,  especially 
those  of  the  Old  Testament,  had  a  strong  influence 
on  the  development  of  Christianity.  This  sacerdotal 
theory  was  strengthened  by  the  return  to  the  Old 
Testament  standpoint,  and  change  of  ecclesiastical 
ofifice  into  a  hierarchical  organization,  regarded  as 
resting  upon  a  divine  and  Apostolic  institution. 
When  once  the  sacerdotal  theory  had  gained  the 
ascendancy,  the  correlated  notion  of  a  sacrifice  could 
no  longer  remain  in  the  background.  This  was 
clearly  seen  in  the  Lord's  Supper.  First,  the  prayer 
of  thanksgiving,  which  gave  the  name  of  The  Eucha- 
rist to  the  whole  service;  then  the  gifts  or  oblations 
brought  by  the  congregation  for  use  in  the  sacrament; 
then  lastly,  as  the  consecrated  elements  and  the  whole 
service  itself,  as  an  acceptable  offering  to  God.  But 
we  must  examine  this  latter  process  more  in  detail. 
Already,  by  Ignatius,  the  Eucharist  was  declared  to  be 
the  Church's  answer  to  the  Docetists  who  denied  the 
reality  of  the  Lord's  human  body.  On  account  of 
their  belief  in  the  resurrection,  they  could  not  point 
to  the  tomb;  and  as  the  belief  in  the  speedy  return  of 
Jesus  in  visible  form  faded  away,  in  the  second  cen- 


134  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

tury,  the  Eucharist  became  the  sign  and  pledge  of 
His  bodily  presence,  the  object  of  devotion  and  rever- 
ence that  might  otherwise  have  centred  in  a  sacred 
tomb,  had  not  the  resurrection  made  that  impossible. 
Consequently,  this  offering,  this  sacrifice,  came  to 
be  regarded  as  having  a  special  merit  before  God,  and 
thus  it  became  an  external  act. 

Both  of  these  conceptions  are  united  by  Cyprian ; 
the  doctrine  of  the  Christian  priesthood,  after  the 
analogy  of  the  Old  Testament  priesthood,  with  the 
doctrine  of  the  sacrifice,  also  according  to  Old  Testa- 
ment analogies.  The  priest,  as  the  mediator,  by  the 
solemn  words  of  institution  consecrates  the  elements 
to  be  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  and  acting  for 
God  gives  it  to  the  people;  and  he  brings  this  conse- 
crated offering  to  God  and  offers  it  for  the  congrega- 
tion as  the  sacrifice  of  Christ.  Already  Tertullian 
had  combined  these  different  lines  of  development 
when  he  pointed  out  as  the  meritorious  offering  of 
the  people,  not  the  gifts  of  nature,  nor  even  the  prayer 
and  intercession,  but  that  which  the  elements  be- 
came in  the  Eucharist  —  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ 
and  the  offering  of  the  Eucharist  itself.  (De  Cultu 
Fem  II,  II.) 

It  is  Cyprian,  however,  who  reaches  the  full  con- 
ception, according  to  which  it  is  the  atoning  sufferings 
of  Christ  Himself  which  the  people  offer  through  the 
operation  of  the  priest.  "The  Passion  of  the  Lord  is 
the  sacrifice  we  offer."     (Ep.  62:17.) 

With  this  developing  significance  of  the  Eucharist 


THE  EUCHARIST  AND  CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP  135 

as  a  mystery  and  a  sacrifice  went  also  the  separation 
from  the  rest  of  the  Christian  worship,  and  the  re- 
stricting of  certain  parts  (such  as  the  two  sacraments, 
the  baptismal  confession  and  the  Lord's  Prayer)  to 
professed  Christians.  This  is  the  beginning  of  what 
is  called  the  Disciplina  Arcani.  It  is  quite  unknown 
to  Justin  Martyr  and  to  Irenaeus,  and  originated,  pro- 
bably, in  Tertullian's  time,  in  the  division  of  the 
worship  into  two  parts,  from  the  second  of  which  (the 
missafidelium),  all  the  unbaptized  were  excluded;  the 
first,  therefore,  remained  the  public  service  for  the 
catechumens  and  public  generally.  This  public  ser- 
vice was  more  developed  and  systematized,  as  longer 
intervals  of  peace  permitted.  Psalms  and  hymns, 
especially  the  Scripture  hymns,  were  used.  The 
Gnostics  introduced  original  hymns.  The  Apostolic 
Constitutions  mention  a  fourfold  reading:  Law, 
Prophets,  Gospels  and  Epistles  (including  Acts). 
The  fixing  of  the  canon  led  to  the  definite  use  of  the 
canonical  Scriptures;  though  some  writings  were 
still  doubtful,  and  others  were  long  permitted  in 
public  Church  reading. 

The  address  was  usually  by  the  bishop;  but  at  this 
early  period  might  be  made  by  a  presbyter  or  by  a 
deacon,  catechist  or  layman,  when  commissioned  by 
the  bishop.  Prayers  were  interspersed  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  service,  at  first  extempore  but  tend- 
ing to  a  fixed  form.  Except  on  fast  days,  when  they 
knelt,  all  (except  penitents)  stood  with  arms  uplifted 
and  facing  the  East. 


136  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Warren,  T.  E. —  Liturgy  and  Ritual  of  the  Ante-Nicene 
Church.     Lond.,  1897. 

Mortimer,  Alfred  G. — The  Eucharistic  Sacrifice.     Lond. 

§10.   Church  Buildings  and  the  Catacombs 

At  first,  of  course,  the  Christians  could  have  no 
special  buildings  for  worship.  When  driven  out  of 
the  temple  and  the  synagogues  (where  they  met  at 
first)  they  used  upper  rooms  or  halls  of  disciples  and 
friends,  or  even  the  lecture  theatre  of  a  rhetorician. 
The  earliest  traces  of  special  buildings  for  Christian 
worship  are  found  in  the  middle  of  the  second  cen- 
tury, and  probably  resembled  the  'scholae'  or  lodge 
rooms  which  were  used  by  guilds  or  corporations  for 
their  meetings.  They  became  more  numerous  dur- 
ing this  period  when  there  were  long  intervals  of  free- 
dom from  persecution.  Even  large  and  conspicuous 
churches  were  built,  notably  one  close  by  the  em- 
peror's palace  in  Nicomedia,  which  was  of  so  light  a 
structure  that  Diocletian's  soldiers  levelled  it  to  the 
ground  in  a  few  hours. 

The  name  Basilica,  applied  to  the  early  church 
buildings,  implies  that  these  halls  of  justice  or  places 
of  exchange  and  general  business  were  used  both  as 
places  of,  and  as  models  for.  Christian  worship. 
They  were  oblong,  rectangular,  divided  by  two  rows 
of  columns  into  a  large  central  part  with  two  side 
aisles.  At  the  front  end  was  the  porch  and  at  the 
other  end,  the   semi-circular  recess   or  apse  for  the 


CHURCH  BUILDINGS  AND  THE  CA  TA  COMBS    137 

magistrate  who  sat  in  his  chair  at  the  centre  of  the  wall 
with  the  judges'  table  in  front  of  him,  and  his  asses- 
sors on  each  side  of  him.  The  three  divisions,  formed 
by  the  two  rows  of  columns,  were  crossed  by  a  space 
called  the  bema,  elevated  a  few  steps  and  occupied 
by  advocates  and  notaries.  Thus  the  building  lent 
itself  very  well  to  the  threefold  division  of  the  Chris- 
tian congregation.  In  the  porch,  the  catechumens  and 
penitents;  in  the  centre,  the  faithful  laity;  and  in  the 
bema  and  apse,  the  clergy.  Separate  buildings  for 
the  baptismal  service  (baptistries)  appear  in  Tertul- 
lian's  time. 

Recent  investigation  has  added  much  to  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  first  three  centuries  from  a  study  of  the 
catacombs.  The  catacombs  not  only  of  Rome  but  of 
Naples,  Cologne,  Treves,  Syracuse  and  Alexandria 
have  contributed  to  this  result.  Christian  burial 
places  were  called  cemeteries,  meaning  dormitories, 
places  of  sleep.  As  they  were  usually  arranged  in 
caves,  they  are  popularly  called  catacombs  (in  the 
caves).  They  often  extended  over  wide  spaces,  and 
downward  in  two  or  more,  sometimes  five  or  six, 
stories.  The  full  period  of  their  use  covers  the  first 
four  centuries.  The  old  idea,  however,  that  they 
were  used  as  secret  places  of  worship,  is  no  longer 
held.  The  spaces  of  passage  and  cells  were  not  large 
enough,  nor  was  there  any  necessity.  As  early  as 
150  A.D.,  Pius  I  of  Rome  mentions  buildings  made 
over  and  used  for  Christian  worship.  The  catacombs 
were  used  for  burial  vaults,  following  the  custom  of 


138  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

the  Jews  who  preferred  burial  to  the  common  practice 
of  cremation.  In  properties  given  or  purchased  the 
Christians  constructed  catacombs  in  Jewish  fashion, 
where  they  habitually  and  peacefully  placed  the  bodies 
of  their  deceased.  Undoubtedly  they  were  used  for 
religious  services  at  a  martyr's  grave,  or  even  for  re- 
fuge and  occasional  worship  in  crises  of  persecution; 
but  ordinarily  Rome  did  not  interfere  with  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Christians.  In  their  possession  and  use 
of  the  catacombs  the  Christians  ranked  as  any  burial 
society.  Certainly  they  were  neither  secret  nor  pro- 
hibited. Their  chief  interest  for  us  lies  in  the 
artistic  emblems  in  the  Roman  catacombs.  We  find 
the  same  decorations  used  in  domestic  pagan  fresco; 
the  four  seasons,  genii,  butterflies,  birds,  grapevines 
and  even  Bacchus,  the  river  god,  Psyche,  Oceanus, 
Mercury,  Orpheus,  Apollo  and  the  three  Graces, 
but  all  with  a  Christian  significance;  also  children's 
dolls,  jewelry,  mirrors,  toilet  implements,  locks  and 
keys,  etc.  This  at  least  shows  that  the  early  Chris- 
tians were  not  completely  severed  from  all  heathen 
association  and  averse  to  painting  and  art,  as  has 
been  sometimes  affirmed.  The  symbol  of  Christ  as 
the  Good  Shepherd  is  frequently  found  on  lamps. 
Cheerful  views  of  death  and  the  future  predominate 
and  exclude  even  the  memories  of  Calvary.  There  is 
an  absolute  reticence  as  to  the  Savior's  sufferings. 
We  find  no  crucifix  and  scarcely  any  portrayal  of  the 
familiar  penal  cross.  Most  common  are  the  dove, 
fish,    anchor,    ship   and    fisherman;    also    the    palm 


CHURCH  BUILDINGS  AND  THE  CATACOMBS    139 

branch,  phoenix  and  peacock ;  emblems  of  victory  and 
immortality.  There  have  been  discovered  in  the 
Roman  catacombs  only  two  attempted  portraits  of 
our  Lord ;  one  a  fresco  medallion  with  a  face  very 
much  like  the  ideals  of  Leonardo  Da  Vinci  and  modern 
art.  The  story  of  the  Passion  and  all  scenes  sugges- 
tive of  sadness  or  fear  are  conspicuous  by  their 
absence;  indeed,  with  the  exception  of  the  visit  of  the 
Magi,  we  rarely  find  representations  of  anything  per- 
taining to  the  life  of  Christ,  outside  His  public  min- 
istry. The  selection  seems  to  illustrate  the  dominant 
ideal  of  Jesus  as  the  Pastor,  Healer  and  Teacher  of 
the  soul.  There  are  few  if  any  references  in  the 
frescoes,  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  apart  from  the  visit  of 
the  Magi;  but  they  are  frequent  in  the  drinking 
glasses  found  in  the  tombs.  (See  Diet,  of  Christian 
Ant.,  Glass.)  Nor  is  there  any  early  reference  to  the 
Eucharist ;  though  many  representations  of  the  Agape, 
showing  what  an  important  part  it  played  in  the  life 
of  the  early  Christians. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Lanciani,  R. — Pagan  and  Christian  Rome.     Boston,  1893. 

Northcote,  J.    S. — Rome    Sotteranea.     2   vols.     Lond.,  1879. 

Northcote,  J.  S. — Epitaphs  of  the  Catacombs.     Lond.,  1898. 

Castellre,  B.  F.  C. — The  Church  and  the  Catacombs.  Lond., 
1894. 

H.  M.  and  M.  A.  R.  T. —  Christian  and  Ecclesiastical  Rome. 

Gnericks,  H.  E.  T. —  Manual  of  the  Antiquities  of  the  Church. 
Lond.,  1851. 

Maitland,  C. — The  Church  in  the  Catacombs. 

Lowrie,  Walter. — Monuments  of  the  Early  Church.  N.  Y., 
1906. 


140  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

Conybeare,  F.  C. —  Monuments  of  Early  Christianity.  Lond., 
1894. 

Jackson,  F.  J.  F. — History  of  the  Church.  Appendix  by 
A.  C.  Jennings,  The  Catacombs  and  Early  Monuments,  pp. 
viii-xxviii. 

§11.  Christian  Life  AND  Discipline 

Christianity  is  not  a  religion;  but  a  life  and  the 
whole  living  of  the  early  Christians  was  inspired  by 
the  example  and  teachings  of  the  life  of  Jesus,  all  the 
more  significant  in  view  of  the  striking  contrast  with 
the  life  which  they  had  lived  previously  and  which 
was  still  lived  by  the  world  around  them.  Three 
principal  characteristics  may  be  noted:  First,  faith; 
the  earnest  devotion  to  the  eternal  realities  and 
spiritual  interests  instead  of  the  merely  temporal  and 
material  affairs;  inspired  by  prayer  in  the  home 
three  times  daily,  morning,  noon  and  night,  personal 
prayer  at  any  and  all  times,  a  life  in  the  presence  of 
God,  making  the  whole  life  of  the  Christian  one  con- 
tinual prayer,  manifested  in  a  life  of  self-sacrifice 
even  to  martyrdom.  Secondly,  purity,  in  personal 
and  family  life;  consecrating  marriage,  ennobling 
women,  protecting  and  treating  children  as  a  sacred 
trust,  and  regarding  the  body  as  the  temple  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  Thirdly,  brotherly  love;  a  real  sym- 
pathy shown  in  the  case  of  the  poor,  the  sick,  even  in 
times  of  pestilence,  the  aged,  widows  and  orphans, 
friendless  and  aflflicted,  strangers  and  even  enemies. 

Special  virtues  were  almsgiving,  fasting,  and 
prayers,  tending  to  develop  into  asceticism  or  'encra- 


CHRISTIAN  LIFE  AND  DISCIPLINE  141 

titism.'  The  discipline  of  the  Church  fell  into  three 
phases:  for  the  catechumens;  for  professed  Chris- 
tians (the  laity);  and  for  the  clergy. 

With  the  enlargement  of  the  Church,  in  order  to 
insure  the  good  character  of  its  members  and  their 
understanding  of  its  principles,  there  was  required  a 
period  of  preparation  devoted  to  prayer,  fasting,  moral 
supervision  and  instruction,  called  the  catechumen- 
ate.  At  the  outset  all  civil  callings  or  trades  incon- 
sistent with  Christianity  must  be  given  up;  that  is 
all  connected  with  heathen  worship,  sacrifices,  thea- 
tres, gladiators,  etc.  Excommunication  and  penance 
were  prescribed  for  Christians  who  fell  into  sin  or 
lapsed  into  idolatry,  heresy  or  schism,  in  order  to  pre- 
serve the  community  from  public  scandal. 

The  question  of  the  readmission  of  those  guilty  of 
mortal  sins, —  that  is,  idolatry,  apostasy,  blasphemy 
and  offenses  against  the  ten  commandments,—  caused 
great  divisions  and  several  schisms  in  this  period.  All 
agreed,  however,  that  it  could  be  granted  only  once. 
The  confessors  frequently  used  their  right  of  demand- 
ing the  restoration  of  the  fallen  by  means  of  letters  of 
recommendation  {^libelli  pads),  to  such  an  extent  as 
to   interfere   seriously  with  a  wholesome  discipline. 

For  the  clergy  an  even  stricter  discipline  was  used, 
especially  in  regard  to  marriage,  a  second  marriage 
being  forbidden  and  marriage  after  ordination  dis- 
couraged. In  this  period  we  find  already  the  be- 
ginnings of  the  later  distinction  between  the  divine 
commandments  binding  upon  all  Christians,  and  the 


142  THE  OLD  CATHOLIC  AGE 

so-called  evangelical  counsels,  the  non-performance  of 
which  is  no  sin,  but  the  doing  of  which  secures  a 
claim  to  merit  and  fuller  divine  approval. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Dale,  A.  W.— Synod  of  Elvira.     Lond.,  1882. 
Lightfoot,  J.  B. — Four  Historical  Essays:  I  Christian  Life  in 
the  first  and  second  centuries. 

§12.  Schisms 

Five  schisms  arose  during  this  period  and  gained 
some  local  following.  Most  of  them  were  based  upon 
rigorist  principles,  and  protested  against  the  milder 
practice  of  some  of  the  bishops,  especially  toward 
those  who  had  lapsed  from  faith  in  the  persecutions. 
These  were:  the  Schisms  of  (i)  Hippolytus  against 
Callistus,  Bishop  of  Rome  220-235  a.d.  ;  (2)  Novatian 
joined  by  Novatus  of  North  Africa,  against  Cornelius, 
Bishop  of  Rome  251  a.d.;  and  (3)  Miletius  against 
Peter,  Bishop  of  Alexandria  306  a.d. 

The  other  two  were:  (i)  The  Theodotians  or  Mel- 
chizedekians;  a  theological  sect  in  Rome,  excommuni- 
cated by  Victor,  Bishop  of  Rome.  Their  attempt  to 
found  a  sect  210  a.d.  was  short-lived.  They  were 
dynamistic  monarchians.  (2)  The  schism  of  Novatus 
and  Felicissimus  against  Cyprian  of  Carthage,  c.205 
A.D.,  objecting  to  his  too  vigorous  treatment  of  the 
lapsed. 


B.  SECOND  PERIOD 

THE  IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND 

THE  FIRST  FOUR  GENERAL  COUNCILS. 

FROM  THE  EDICT  OF  MILAN  TO 

THE  END  OF  THE  ROMAN 

EMPIRE  IN  THE  WEST 

313  A.D.   TO   476  A.D. 


B.  CHAPTER  I. 

THE   IMPERIAL  CHURCH   AND 
THE   NICENE   FAITH 

313  A.D  TO  395  A.D. 

§1.  The  Empire  of  Constantine  and  His  Succes- 
sors IN  Relation  to  the  Cpiristian  Church 
and  the  Overthrow  of  Paganism 

THE  growing  influence  of  Constantine  expressed 
in  the  Edict  of  Milan,  marked  a  new  era  in  the 
history  of  Christianity  and  of  the  world.  While  the 
alliance  between  the  Empire  and  paganism  was  not 
formally  completely  severed  by  Constantine,  there 
was  established  a  union  of  the  Empire  with  the 
Christian  Church.  The  fall  of  paganism  was  a  slow 
process  not  to  be  measured  entirely  by  imperial 
edicts,  but  due  also  to  many  other  causes  not  easily 
defined.  The  old  religious  institutions  were  so 
closely  connected  with  the  traditions  and  spirit 
of  the  Empire,  and  even  with  the  daily  life  and 
popular  amusements  of  the  people,  that  it  was 
neither  possible  nor  expedient  to  attempt  to  break 
it  all  at  once.  Many  of  the  noble  and  cultured  pa- 
gans had  a  strong  aversion  to  Christianity;  so  that 
patriotism  and  manly  spirit  came  to  be  identified 
with  the  maintenance  of  the  old  religion,  which  long 
survived    among   them,    especially  in   Rome  and   in 


146    IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

the  schools  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy  in  Rome, 
Athens  and  Alexandria. 

After  the  Edict  of  Milan,  Constantine  continued 
to  favor  Christianity.  The  clergy  were  exempted 
from  taxation.  The  emancipation  of  Christian  slaves 
was  facilitated;  customs  and  ordinances  offensive  to 
Christians  were  abolished;  in  321  civic  business  was 
ordered  stopped  on  Sunday,  and  in  323  heathen  sym- 
bols were  removed  from  the  imperial  coins.  The 
Council  of  Aries  was  convoked  in  314.  The  episco- 
pal court  was  introduced  into  the  judicial  system. 
Much  of  this  is  probably  due  to  the  ability  and  in- 
fluence of  Hosius,  Bishop  of  Cordova,  and  Lac- 
tantius,  tutor  to  the  Emperor's  son,  who  were  fre- 
quently with  the  Emperor  and  whose  influence  can 
be  directly  traced  in  many  instances. 

In  the  East,  Licinius  had  defeated  Maximin  in  313 
and  forced  him,  just  before  his  death,  to  issue  an 
edict  like  that  of  Milan  which  assured  the  same 
rights  to  the  Christians  in  the  East.  Thus  Chris- 
tianity was  recognized  throughout  the  whole  Empire, 
and  the  Church  grew  very  fast  at  the  expense  of 
paganism.  Licinius,  however,  began  to  see  the  ex- 
pediency of  allying  himself  with  the  pagan  party;  and 
the  friendly  relations  with  Constantine  grew  more 
and  more  strained.  Mutual  jealousy  and  suspicion 
arose  and  at  last  resulted  in  open  hostility.  Licinius 
restrained  the  liberties  of  the  Christians  in  his  part 
of  the  Empire,  and  indeed  a  new  general  persecution 
was  mentioned.     He  now  became  the  leader  of  the 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  CONSTANT! A' E  U7 

pagan  party;  and  the  struggle  for  the  sole  headship  of 
the  Empire  was  the  life  and  death  struggle  between 
Christianity  and  paganism.  Constantine  gained  a 
complete  victory  323  a.d.  At  first  he  spared  the  life 
of  Licinius,  but  on  the  breaking  out  of  a  fresh  con- 
spiracy he  caused  him  to  be  put  to  death  and  reigned 
alone;  triumphant  Christianity  sat  upon  the  throne 
of  the  Caesars.  He  immediately  proceeded  to  carry 
out  his  religious  policy  in  the  East  as  he  had  done 
already  in  the  West.  Ascribing  his  victory  to  the 
God  of  the  Christians,  he  declared  himself  a  Chris- 
tian and  exhorted  his  subjects  to  embrace  Christianity. 
All  the  decrees  of  Licinius  against  the  Christians 
were  annulled,  the  property  of  martyrs  and  of 
churches  was  restored,  all  the  banished  were  recalled 
and  those  reduced  to  slavery  were  freed.  A  second 
edict  restored  the  firm  basis  of  equality  and  renewed 
the  exemptions  and  privileges  allowed  to  the  Church. 
Pagan  religions  with  their  institutions  and  priests 
were  not  attacked,  although  immoral  cults  were  more 
strictly  prohibited. 

The  first  Ecumenical  or  General  Council  of  the 
Church  was  summoned  to  meet  at  Nicaea  325  a.d.,  in 
the  effort  to  establish  in  the  Church  that  unity 
which  he  had  just  effected  in  the  Empire. 

The  next  most  important  event  was  the  selection  of 
Byzantium  and  its  enlargement  and  rebuilding,  dedi- 
cated in  330,  under  the  name  of  Constantinople,  to  be 
a  new  Rome;  the  sole  imperial  residence  and  centre 
of   Christianity,  as    the    old    Rome   (where   the   old 


148    IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

families  of  rank  still  clung  closely  to  their  old  reli- 
gion) had  been  the  centre  of  the  old  Empire  and  the 
old  religion. 

Constantine's  personal  religion  has  never  been 
quite  clearly  explained.  He  had  a  high  regard 
for  Christianity  and  the  Christians,  and  showed  him- 
self their  protector  and  supporter,  with  a  genuine 
conviction  in  adopting  their  faith.  He  held  it,  how- 
ever, after  a  pagan  fashion;  as  is  evident  by  his  super- 
stition in  regard  to  the  sign  which  he  adopted  as  an 
emblem  for  war,  a  magical  means  of  insuring  success. 
There  is  also  evidence  of  political  sagacity  in  taking 
up  the  cause  of  Christianity  and  securing  the  aid  of 
Christians  against  his  imperial  rivals,  who  were 
pledged  to  the  cause  of  paganism,  and  whose  violent 
deaths  had  repelled  and  terrified  him.  Nor  did  he 
himself  completely  break  with  the  old  religion. 
Religious  liberty  was  granted  to  all  pagans  as  well  as 
Christians.  He  allowed  all  the  previously  existing  re- 
ligious institutions  to  remain, —  temples,  priests,  sa- 
cred colleges,  vestals,  etc., —  and  retained  the  imperial 
title  of  Pontifex  Maximus,  though  he  evaded  personal 
participation  in  religious  ceremonies  incompatible 
with  his  profession  of  Christianity,  much  as  Chris- 
tians in  civil  office  under  preceding  emperors  had 
done.  His  officers  were  generally  chosen  from  the 
Christians;  if  pagan,  they  were  forbidden  to  take  part 
officially  in  pagan  worship.  Yet  he  was  for  both 
pagans  and  Christians  the  supreme  legislator,  de- 
fender of  public  order  and  distributor  of  favors.     He 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  CONSTANTINE  149 

desired  religious  unity  for  the  Empire,  and  as  this  had 
been  shown  to  be  impossible  with  paganism  he  hoped 
to  realize  it  with  Christianity.  The  liberty  granted 
to  pagans  could  be  only  precarious  and  provisional, 
their  worship  was  being  restricted,  and  to  renounce 
paganism  was  a  sure  way  of  gaining  imperial  favors; 
he  bestowed  special  honors  and  privileges  on 
cities  which  accepted  Christianity.  The  sacred  places 
of  Christianity  were  officially  glorified.  Pilgrimages 
to  sacred  places  had  begun  already  in  the  preceding 
period. 

He  died  337  a.d.,  having  received  baptism  on  his 
death-bed  according  to  a  common  custom. 

Many  of  the  charges  against  Constantine's  char- 
acter have  been  disproved  and  others  are  doubtful. 
Some  of  his  so-called  murders  were  politically  justi- 
fied;  his  wife  Fausta,  whom  he  was  reported  to  have 
put  to  death,  was  reported  alive  340  a.d. 

The  so-called  Donation  of  Constantine,  which  pur- 
ports to  confer  upon  the  Church  of  St.  Peter  imperial 
authority  over  Italy  and  all  the  cities  and  provinces 
of  the  West,  as  a  grant  to  Pope  Sylvester,  is  a  forgery 
of  the  latter  half  of  the  eighth  century,  in  order  to 
establish  the  donations  of  Pippin  and  Charles  to  the 
papacy. 

Constantine  toward  the  end  of  his  life  issued  a 
general  prohibition  of  public  and  private  sacrifices 
and  of  the  rebuilding  of  fallen  temples.  Nothing  re- 
mained to  paganism  but  its  legal  privileges.  It  had 
a    strong  hold  on  the  amusements  and  popular  life, 


150    IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

as  Christianity  formed  a  great  contrast  with  it  on 
the  side  of  pomp,  spectacular  ceremonial  and  amuse- 
ments; and  also  on  the  official  and  administrative 
class  on  account  of  its  identity  with  traditional 
patriotism.  However,  the  example  and  influence  of 
the  Emperor,  the  spiritual  power  of  Christianity, 
and  the  free  activity  of  the  Church  helped  greatly 
to  undermine  and  weaken  paganism. 

The  policy  of  Constantine  was  made  more  definite 
and  intolerant  by  his  three  sons,  who  succeeded  him 
in  337  after  putting  to  death  all  their  male  relations, 
except  two  cousins  Gallus  and  Julian,  who  were  too 
young  to  be  dangerous.  Constantine  II  died  in  340, 
and  Constans  ruled  in  the  West  and  Constantius  in 
the  East  until  Constans  died  in  350  and  Constantius 
(the  real  originator  of  violent  measures  against  pagan- 
ism), ruled  alone  until  his  death  361  a.d. 

An  edict  in  341  prohibited  sacrifices,  but  other 
pagan  ceremonies  were  not  forbidden.  Another  in  346 
ordered  the  temples  to  be  closed  and  sacrifices  stopped 
under  penalty  of  death  and  confiscation.  But  there 
were  no  pagan  martyrs.  Laws  were  obeyed  and  en- 
forced only  where  public  sentiment  demanded.  But 
on  the  whole  paganism  declined  under  the  disfavor  of 
the  Emperor  and  the  proscription  of  its  worship. 
Multitudes  accepted  Christianity  from  motives  of 
safety  and  policy. 

One  of  the  most  significant  acts  was  the  removal 
by  Constans  of  the  altar  of  Victory  from  the  hall  of 
the  Senate  at  Rome,  where  it  had  stood  as  the  emblem 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  CONSTANTINE  151 

and  seal  of  Rome's  majesty  and  glory.  This  act  was 
followed  by  a  rebellion  under  Magnentius  and  the 
assassination  of  Constans  350  a.d.  Magnentius 
issued  a  license  for  night  sacrifice,  which  Constantius 
again  prohibited  353  a.d.,  after  his  defeat  of  Mag- 
nentius. 

A  fresh  edict  against  sacrifices  (with  the  death 
penalty)  followed  in  356,  but  it  was  enforced  only 
against  soothsayers  and  magicians.  However,  Con- 
stantius confirmed  the  rights  of  the  old  college  of 
priests  in  Rome  and  Africa,  and  still  retained  the 
title  of  Pontifex  Maximus. 

Julian,  one  of  the  cousins  who  had  been  spared  in 
the  general  massacre  which  followed  Constantine's 
death  in  337,  had  been  brought  up  as  a  Christian  and 
studied  at  Athens  as  a  fellow-student  of  Gregory  of 
Nazianzus  but  was  repelled  rather  than  attracted  by 
the  Christianity  he  saw  about  him,  and  he  preferred 
the  intellectual  allegories  and  mysteries  of  Neo-Pla- 
tonism.  Sent  to  Gaul  in  356  as  Caesar  under  Con- 
stantius, he  put  down  the  Teutonic  tribes  and  restored 
peace  and  order. 

This  success  aroused  the  jealousy  of  Constantius, 
but  the  Emperor's  death  in  361  left  the  way  open  for 
Julian's  peaceful  accession  to  the  throne.  He  imme- 
diately restored  the  old  religion,  reopened  the  temples 
and  proclaimed  absolute  freedom  of  worship,  thus 
winning  the  designation  'Apostate.'  He  took  essen- 
tially the  same  attitude  toward  paganism  that  Con- 
stantine  the  Great  had  maintained  toward  Christian- 


152    IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

ity.  Christians  were  not  persecuted;  but  paganism 
was  restored  to  its  old  privileges,  the  confiscated 
temples  and  their  endowments  were  given  back,  the 
privileges  of  the  Christian  clergy  were  withdrawn 
and  the  imperial  subsidies  stopped.  The  use  of  classic- 
al literature  was  forbidden  in  the  Christian  schools, 
in  order  to  deprive  them  of  the  highest  classical  edu- 
cation of  the  time.  He  tried  to  graft  onto  paganism 
the  moral  and  spiritual  power  of  Christianity.  But 
his  reign  was  short,  and  after  eighteen  months  he 
died),  in  January,  365  a.d.)  fighting  against  the  Per- 
sians. 

The  death  of  Julian  shattered  the  hopes  of  the 
pagan  party.  A  Christian  general,  Jovian,  was 
chosen  by  the  army  to  succeed  him,  but  died  before 
reaching  Constantinople,  and  another  Christian, 
Valentinian,  was  chosen  in  his  place.  Taking  charge 
of  the  West,  he  associated  with  himself  his  brother 
Valens,  to  whom  he  gave  charge  over  the  East. 
Valentinian  was  too  much  occupied  with  wars  and  dis- 
orders to  pay  much  attention  to  religious  affairs,  but 
Valens,  a  decided  Arian,  was  very  bitter  against 
Athanasius  and  his  party.  Valentinian  died  in  375 
A.D,,  and  left  the  government  of  the  West  to  his  two 
sons:  Gratian,  aged  sixteen  (375-383  a.d.),  and  Valen- 
tinian II,  aged  four  (375-392  a.d,). 

Valens  was  defeated  and  slain  at  the  battle  of 
Hadrianople  378  a.d.,  in  which  the  Visigoths,  driven 
onward  by  the  terrible  Huns,  gained  a  decisive  vic- 
tory  over   the    Romans;   breaking   once  for   all    the 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  CONSTANTINE  153 

Rhine-Danube  frontier  of  the  Empire.  Gratian  then 
gave  the  East  to  the  Spaniard  Theodosius,  a  worthy 
countryman  of  the  great  Emperor  Trajan.  Gratian 
was  under  the  powerful  influence  of  Ambrose  of 
Milan.  He  was  the  first  Roman  Emperor  to  re- 
nounce the  title  and  dignity  of  Pontifex  Maximus, 
afterwards  assumed  by  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  he 
withdrew  their  privileges  and  endowments  from  the 
college  of  priests  and  the  vestal  virgins  on  whom 
it  was  believed  the  very  safety  of  the  city  depended. 
Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  with  Gratian  all  official 
and  legal  relations  between  paganism  and  the  govern- 
ment were  abrogated.  He  repressed  the  ceremonies 
at  the  altar  of  Victory  in  connection  with  the  taking 
of  the  oath  of  office  by  the  senators.  Constans  had 
removed  the  altar  but  Julian  had  restored  it.  Gratian 
finally  removed  it  382  a.d.,  and  confiscated  its  reve- 
nues. The  rebellion  of  Maximus  and  the  murder  of 
Gratian  followed.  An  earnest  and  pathetic  petition 
to  restore  the  altar  and  its  worship  was  presented  to 
Valentinian  after  the  death  of  Gratian,  but  it  was 
answered  by  Ambrose  with  a  haughty  refusal. 

Four  years  later,  388  a.d.,  Theodosius  was  called 
into  Italy  to  protect  Valentinian  II  and  his  court 
from  the  invasion  of  Maximus.  There  he  remained 
three  years  in  intimate  relations  with  Siricius,  Bishop 
of  Rome,  and  with  Ambrose  of  Milan.  The  Senate 
again  petitioned  390  a.d.,  for  the  restoration  of  the 
altar  of  Victory;  but  was  refused.  The  next  year 
Symmachus  petitioned  and  was  exiled;  at  the  same 
13 


154     IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

time  two  edicts  were  issued,  one  for  Rome  and  the 
other  for  the  East,  which  sounded  the  death-knell  of 
paganism.  They  forbade  sacrifices,  slaying  innocent 
victims,  entering  temples,  approaching  shrines  and 
paying  reverence  to  statues.  The  cults  of  Lares  and 
Penates  were  prohibited  392  a.d.  In  the  same  year 
Valentian  II  was  assassinated,  and  Eugenius,  a  Roman 
noble  and  a  Christian,  succeeded  him.  He,  however, 
favored  the  pagans,  restoring  temples  and  allowing 
ceremonies  and  processions.  Theodosius  defeated 
him  394  A.D.,  and  became  sole  Emperor.  He  went  to 
Rome  and  exhorted  the  pagan  senators  to  give  up 
their  old  religion.  No  one  yielded;  and  the  sacred 
rites  and  ceremonies  were  again  prohibited,  the  tem- 
ples closed  and  the  priests  banished.  This  brought 
many  converts  from  paganism.  Theodosius  died  in 
the  following  year  and  the  final  division  of  the  Empire 
followed,  between  his  two  sons,  Arcadius  in  the  East, 
and  Honorius  in  the  West. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Boyd,  W.  K. — Ecclesiastical  Edicts  of  the  Theodosian  Code. 
Columbia  University  Studies.  Vol.  XXIV,  No.  2,  pp.  9-32. 
1905. 

Firth,  C.  H. — Constantine  the  Great.     N.  Y.,  1895. 

Cutts,  E.  L. — Constantine.     Lond.,  18S1. 

Chawner,  W. — The  Influence  of  Christianity  upon  the 
Legislation  of  Constantine.     Lond.,  1874. 

Arnold,  W.  F. — The  Roman  System  of  Provincial  Adminis- 
tration. 

Gibbon,  E. — Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

Negri. — Julian  the  Apostate.     2  vols.     N.  Y.,  1905. 

Rendall,  G.  H. — The  Emperor  JuHan.     Lond.,  1879. 


THE  INTELLECTUAL  A  TTA  CK  1 55 

King. — Julian  the  Emperor.     Lond.,  i8S8. 
Gardner,  Alice. — Julian,  Philosopher  and  Emperor.  N.Y.,  1895. 
Hodgkin,  T. — Theodosius.     Oxford,  1S89. 
Geffcken,  H. — Church  and  State.     Lond.,  1877. 
Saunders,  G. — The  State  of  the  Christian  Community  before 
and  after  Constantine.    Glasgow,  1882. 

§2.    The  Intellectual  Attack 

The  most  noted  polemic  against  Christianity  was 
Julian's  treatise  in  three  or  more  books,  known  only 
by  the  reply  written  by  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  Julian's 
work  and  the  other  replies  having  been  lost.  Cyril 
answers  it  section  by  section ;  but  even  here  we  have 
only  the  first  book,  fragments  of  the  second  and 
almost  nothing  of  the  third.  Julian  represented 
Christianity  as  a  deteriorated  Judaism  and  criticized 
the  later  developments  of  relics  and  saint-worship 
already  beginning  to  appear.  Christianity  seemed  to 
him  weak,  contemptible  and  lifeless;  a  clever  device 
of  folly  and  wickedness. 

Later  advocates  of  heathenism  were, —  Libanius,  a 
rhetorician,  friend  and  admirer  of  Julian ;  Symmachus, 
Senator  and  Prefect  of  Rome  under  Gratian  and 
Valentinian  II;  and  Themistius,  Senator  and  Prefect 
of  Constantinople,  later  the  tutor  of  the  young  Em- 
peror Arcadius, —  who  were  content  with  claiming  tol- 
eration and  religious  freedom.  The  last  and  boldest 
attacks  were  made  in  the  fifth  century  by  Eunapius 
and  Zosimus. 

It  was  now  charged  that  Christianity  depended  upon 
the  favor  of  princes  for  its  success  and  spread,  while 


156     IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

the  lives  of  professedly  zealous  Christian  emperors 
were  no  better  than  those  of  many  pagan  emperors, 
yet  excessive  reverence  was  paid  them  by  the  Chris- 
tians. 

Attention  was  called  to  the  enormous  corruption 
which,  under  the  show  of  Christianity,  manifested 
itself  in  public  relations  and  among  the  great  mass  of 
nominal  Christians. 

§3.    The  Spread  of  Christianity 

Naturally  under  the  favorable  attitude  and  special 
efforts  of  Constantine  and  his  successors  (with  the 
exception  of  Julian)  Christianity  spread  rapidly  and 
became  more  firmly  and  imperially  established.  In 
Abyssinia  a  certain  Frumentius  had  been  ship- 
wrecked, attained  great  influence,  returned  to  Alex- 
andria, sought  the  aid  of  Athanasius  and  went  back  to 
Abyssinia  (338  a.d.)  as  the  first  bishop  of  the  Church 
there.  It  still  retains  many  Judaistic  traits.  Arabia 
went  through  an  Arian  phase  in  the  fourth  century, 
but  was  restored  to  orthodoxy  b}^  Elesbaan,  the 
Catholic  King  of  Abyssinia  in  the  sixth  century. 

In  Persia  the  Christians  as  friends  of  Rome  were 
persecuted  in  the  fourth  century;  but  peace  was  re- 
stored, although  toleration  was  granted  to  the  Zoroas- 
trians  in  the  fifth  century,  and  the  Church  finally  be- 
came Nestorian. 

In  Armenia  Christianity  found  a  footing  and  went 
through  severe  persecution  in  the  third  century.  But 
the  great  work  was  begun  by  Gregory  the  Illuminator, 


THE  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY  157 

early  in  the  fourth  century,  and  he  is  called  the 
Apostle  of  Armenia.  His  descendants  held  the 
patriarchal  dignity.  Isaac  the  Great  with  his  friend 
and  successor  Mesrop  gave  to  the  Church  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  in  their  own  language,  for  which 
he  had  to  invent  a  national  alphabet ;  and  the  Chris- 
tian literature  of  Armenia  began.  The  Armenian 
Church  warded  off  Nestorianism  but  accepted  Mono- 
physitism  and  condemned  the  Chalcedonian  dogma  in 
the  sixth  century. 

Among  the  Iberians  Christianity  was  spread  by 
Armenian  Christians  in  the  second  quarter  of  the 
fourth  century. 

From  India  Theophilus  Indicus,  of  the  island  of 
Diu,  had  been  sent  to  Constantinople.  He  was  there 
educated  for  the  Arian  priesthood  ;  and  returning  about 
the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  found  several  iso- 
lated Christian  communities  holding  the  Ante-Nicene 
subordination  doctrine,  probably  commercial  colonies 
of  Persian  Christians.  He  began  to  spread  Chris- 
tianity among  the  native  population,  being  aided  by 
clergy  sent  from  Persia.  He  also  labored  in  Arabia, 
where  anchorites,  monks,  and  'stylites'  were  very 
successful  among  the  wandering  hordes.  But  as  all 
of  this  country  was  swept  by  the  Mohammedans  in 
the  seventh  century,  we  find  the  most  permanent  and 
important  spread  of  Christianity  in  the  West. 


158     IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

§4.    The  Establishment  of  Christianity  among 
THE  Germans;  Ulfilas  and  the  Goths 

In  the  pre-German  age  Europe  was  inhabited  for 
the  most  part  by  Celtic  races.  The  part  conquered 
by  the  Roman  arms  had  been  Romanized  by  Roman 
culture.  In  northern,  eastern  and  central  Europe 
they  were  exterminated  or  Germanized  by  the  Teu- 
tonic tribes  which  came  from  the  far  North  in  various 
bands  and,  in  the  great  Volkerwanderung  of  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries,  were  gaining  lands  and  founding 
kingdoms  toward  the  South.  But  already,  and  partly 
the  cause  of  this  Volkerwanderung,  vast  hordes  of 
oriental  and  Turanian  races,  Huns,  Slavs,  and  Mag- 
yars, were  pouring  down  from  the  far  northeast 
driving  the  German  tribes  before  them.  Chief  among 
these  Teutonic  peoples,  which  were  loose  confedera- 
tions of  different  tribes,  were  the  Goths  (including 
Visigoths,  Ostrogoths  and  Gepidae),  Vandals,  Lom- 
bards, Franks,  Alemanni,  Burgundians,  Saxons, 
Bavarians  and  Thuringians.  They  first  founded 
settlements  along  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube,  the  two 
rivers  which  the  emperors  of  the  second  and  third 
centuries  tried  to  hold  as  the  northern  frontier  of  the 
Empire. 

Christianity  had  now  (in  the  fourth  century)  be- 
come identified  with  the  Roman  Empire,  in  the  reign 
of  Constantine,  as  one  of  its  authorized  religions,— 
indeed  as  its  chief  authorized  religion ;  and  in  the  reign 
of  his  sons,  as  the  sole  authorized  religion  of  the  Em- 


CHRISTIANITY  AMONG  THE  GERMANS      159 

pire;  and  it  seemed  as  if  it  must  share  the  Empire's 
fate.  The  great  question  was:  would  the  German 
tribes,  which  hung  like  a  great  war  cloud  over  the 
northern  boundaries  of  the  Empire,  in  making  their 
attack  accept  the  religion  of  their  enemies,  or  even 
spare  it  at  the  moment  of  their  victory. 

Even  before  the  Edict  of  Milan  Christianity  had 
been  established  on  the  Rhine;  and  bishoprics  existed 
at  Treves,  Metz  and  Cologne,  and  probably  at 
Tongres,  Speyer  and  Mainz.  Also  on  the  Danube,  at 
Lorch,  Pettau,  Augsburg,  Sirmium  and  elsewhere, 
where  the  Roman  legions  had  their  garrisons  and 
colonies.  The  slow  and  for  the  most  part  peaceful 
Germanizing  of  the  Empire  which  was  taking  place 
during  the  fourth  century  helped  to  ensure  the  tri- 
umph of  Christianity.  The  boundary  itself  had  be- 
come indistinct  by  the  admission  of  whole  tribes,  by 
acknowledging  others  as  fcBderati  or  allies,  and  by 
the  numerous  colorii  and  laeti,  who  had  become  (for 
financial  and  military  reasons)  indispensable  to  the 
Roman  state.  Thousands  of  Germans  had  poured  in- 
to the  Empire;  and  since  375  a.d.  a  large  majority 
in  the  Roman  army  and  some  of  its  greatest  generals 
were  German.  This  movement  really  facilitated  the 
spread  of  Christianity;  for  many  of  the  Germans  re- 
ceived into  the  Empire  were  received  also  into  Chris- 
tianity, which  was  in  turn  carried  by  them  to  the 
Germans  outside. 

A  more  definite  and  organized  work,  however,  was 
to   complete  the  solution   of   the  problem.     Already 


160    IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

the  Church  had  been  established  among  the  Ostro- 
goths by  captives  brought  back  from  a  pillaging  expe- 
dition to  Asia  Minor  258  a.d.,  and  a  bishop  of  the 
Ostrogoths  signed  the  decrees  at  the  council  of 
Nicaea.  But  the  real  result  was  accomplished  by 
Ulfilas. 

Ulfilas  was  born  about  311  a.d.,  probably  of  Gothic 
parentage,  not  of  the  captives  from  Cappadocia.  That 
he  was  of  distinguished  family  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  he  was  sent  as  a  hostage  to  the  court  of  Constan- 
tinople about  332  A.D.  Here  probably,  Ulfilas  was 
converted  to  Arian  Christianity  and  became  a  reader 
among  his  own  countrymen  in  or  near  Constantinople, 
and  began  his  famous  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
Gothic.  He  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  the  Goths 
by  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  341  a.d.,  and  owing  to 
persecutions  by  the  heathen  Goths  he  migrated  with 
many  of  his  Christian  converts  to  Moesia  348  a.d. 
Here  he  completed  his  translation  and  continued  his 
great  work  of  laying  the  foundations  of  the  Gothic 
Church.  Summoned  to  Constantinople  by  the  Em- 
peror in  380,  he  died  there  early  in  the  next  year. 
He  has  been  called  the  Cadmus,  the  Moses,  and  the 
Luther  of  the  Goths.  His  greatness  is  seen  in  his 
preaching  the  Gospel,  organizing  the  Church  and  in 
the  civilizing  influence  of  his  great  personality.  But 
his  translation  of  the  Bible  had  wider  and  more  en- 
during issues.  It  was  a  great  gift  to  the  world,  and 
may  be  called  the  foundation  stone  of  all  Teutonic 
literature.     Much   of   the  New  Testament   remains, 


CHRISTIANITY  AMONG  THE  GERMANS      161 

chiefly  the  Gospels  (the  Codex  Argenteus)  written  in 
silver  uncials  on  purple  vellum;  preserved  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Upsala,  Sweden.  Other  parts  are  found  in 
other  codices;  but  the  Acts,  Catholic  Epistles  and 
Apocalypse  have  not  come  down  to  us.  The  original 
translation  was  of  the  whole  Bible,  except  the  Books 
of  Kings  (omitted  because  of  their  warlike  spirit)  and 
was  made  from  the  Greek  with  the  later  corrections 
and  additions  from  the  Itala.  It  was  a  vivid  and 
vigorous  representation  of  the  spirit  of  the  original, 
clothed  in  the  idioms  and  colored  by  the  earlier  ideas 
of  his  people,  and  became  a  great  and  truly  national 
possession.  Goths  and  Vandals  alike  carried  it  with 
them  on  their  wanderings  through  Europe.  Ulfilas 
himself  created  the  alphabet  in  which  it  was  written. 
He  also  wrote  treatises  and  commentaries  for  the 
further  enlightenment  of  his  people.  Although  an 
Arian,  Ulfilas  was  not  of  the  extreme  or  negative 
party. 

About  this  time,  in  or  before  370  a.d.,  the  Huns, 
savage,  cruel,  barbarous  and  devasting,  appeared 
like  a  rushing  cyclone  from  the  East.  The  shock  of 
their  onset  upon  the  Goths  of  the  Volga  made  itself 
felt  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube.  The  Gothic  federa- 
tion went  to  pieces.  Part  of  the  Ostrogoths  sub- 
mitted and  were  absorbed.  Another  part  fell  back 
and  drove  before  them  the  Visigoths,  some  under 
Athanaric  to  the  Carpathian  mountains,  and  some 
under  Frithigern  to  the  Danube.  Frithigern  gathered 
the  scattered  Christians,  Arians,  Audians  and  Ortho- 


162    IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

dox;  proclaimed  himself  a  Christian  and  the  protector 
of  the  persecuted.  He  appealed  to  Valens,  who 
allowed  him  to  settle  in  the  Empire.  But  struggles, 
misunderstandings  and  the  treachery  and  opposition 
of  the  Roman  leaders  led  to  the  great  battle  of 
Adrianople,  378  a.d.  ,  in  which  the  Goths  gained  a 
great  victory  and  Valens  was  slain.  For  Rome  it 
was  a  second  Cannae. 

Southeastern  Europe  was  at  the  mercy  of  the  Goths ; 
but  they  broke  up  into  roving  bands.  Their  unity 
did  not  outlast  their  need  of  defense,  and  they  were 
settled  by  Theodosius  along  the  Danube  from  Pannonia 
to  Moesia.  The  submission  and  death  of  Anthanaric, 
their  barbarian  leader,  took  place  at  Constantinople 
early  in  381. 

The  Visigoths  held  strongly  to  their  Arian  Chris- 
tianity, and  in  that  form  transmitted  it  to  the  Ostro- 
goths and  Vandals  and  other  Teutonic  tribes.  The 
conversion  of  the  Goths  arrested  the  decay  of  the 
Arian  cause. 

But  the  gain  of  a  nation  could  not  make  up  for  the 
loss  of  an  emperor.  The  defeat  of  Valens  at  Adrian- 
ople was  a  paralyzing  shock.  The  Empire  had  no  re- 
serve to  fall  back  upon.  It  also  dealt  a  fatal  blow  to 
Arianism.  The  Homoians  for  twenty  years  had 
crushed  out  the  rival  sections  of  the  Arians,  but  relied 
almost  entirely  on  the  influence  of  the  court.  On  the 
death  of  Valens,  the  Homoians,  and  with  them  the 
Arians  crumbled  away.  Gratian,  indeed,  issued  an 
edict  of  toleration;  but  Theodosius,  during  a  long  ill- 


THE  CLERGY  163 


ness,  was  converted  to  the  Nicene  faith  and  became 
its  active  ally,  and  it  was  victorious  in  the  Council  of 
381  A.D. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Merivale,  C. — Conversion  of  the  West.     5  vols.     N.  Y.,  1879. 
Scott,  C.  A.— Ulfilas:  The   Apostle   of  the   Goths.     Lond., 
1895. 

§5.    The  Clergy 

The  authorization  of  Christianity  by  the  Emperor 
served  to  accentuate  the  distinction  between  the  cler- 
gy and  the  laity,  and  to  emphasize  still  further  the  im- 
portance and  preeminent  position  of  the  clergy,  as  well 
as  to  increase  their  number  and  to  extend  their  official 
duties  and  legal  powers  of  administration. 

Both  presbyters  and  bishops  were  chosen  by  the 
people;  either  by  a  formal  vote  or  by  verbal  confirma- 
tion or  rejection  of  a  candidate,  by  the  formula, 
"Worthy,"  or  "Unworthy."  This  was  most  mani- 
fest in  the  choice  of  bishops.  Often  the  popular  will 
decided  before  the  provincial  bishops  and  clergy  as- 
sembled and  the  regular  elections  could  be  held;  e.g., 
Ambrose  of  Milan,  Nectarius  of  Constantinople, 
Martin  of  Tours  and  Chrysostom  of  Constantinople. 
In  Constantinople  the  imperial  influence  was  usually 
supreme.  In  Rome  and  generally  in  the  West,  the 
bishops  and  other  clergy  with  the  laity  acted  together; 
though  the  Emperor  retained  the  right  of  confirming 
the  election  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome. 

Though  the  ordination  or  consecration  was  always 
by  the  bishop  or  bishops  (the  Council  of  Nicaea  de- 


164    IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

creed  at  least  three  in  the  case  of  a  bishop),  the  cus- 
tom of  presbyters  assisting  at  the  ordination  of  a 
presbyter  by  laying  on  of  hands  is  very  ancient. 
However,  the  bishop  acted  alone  in  ordaining  a  deacon ; 
the  idea  being  that  the  deacon  is  not  ordained  to  the 
priesthood,  but  for  rendering  service  to  the  bishop. 
The  age  for  a  deacon  was  fixed  at  twenty-five,  for  a 
presbyter,  at  thirty.  Except  for  missionary  work, 
the  ordination  was  for  a  particular  position.  The 
great  theological  and  educational  centres  like  Alex- 
andria, Caesarea,  Antioch,  Edessa,  Nisibis  and  Athens 
helped  in  the  clerical  training,  while  monasteries 
and  individual  bishops  like  Ambrose  and  Augus- 
tine did  much.  Actors,  slaves,  soldiers  and  muti- 
lated persons  were  excluded. 

The  distinction  between  bishops  and  presbyters  in 
regard  to  functions  became  less  marked  as  the  presby- 
ters (though  still  subordinate  to  the  bishops)  increased 
greatly  in  number  and  came  to  have  more  independent 
charge  of  daughter  and  country  churches.  This  in- 
crease in  the  number  and  importance  of  the  presbyters 
under  the  leadership  of  the  one  bishop  tended  to  in- 
crease the  prestige  and  power  of  the  bishops.  The 
tendency  was  further  increased  by  the  action  regard- 
ing the  chorepiscopi  (the  country  bishops).  The 
synod  of  Ancyra,  314  a.d.,  had  forbidden  them  to 
ordain.  The  synod  of  Antioch,  341  a.d.,  likewise 
forbade  this  and  made  them  dependent  on  the  nearest 
city  bishop.  At  the  synod  of  Sardica,  343  a.d.,  it 
was  forbidden  to  set  up  a  bishop  in  a  village  or  small 


THE  CLERGY  165 


town  for  which  a  single  presbyter  is  sufficient,  "in 
order  that  the  name  and  authority  of  bishop  may  not 
suffer."  The  synod  of  Laodicea,  c.  343-381,  a.d., 
substituted  for  the  chorepiscopi,  visitatores  (presby- 
ters commissioned  by  the  city  bishop);  the  still  exist- 
ing chorepiscopi  are  to  do  nothing  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  city  bishop.  With  the  gradual  suppres- 
sion of  the  chorepiscopi  the  presbyters  took  their 
places,  with  increased  authority  to  preach,  administer 
the  sacraments,  care  for  souls,  and  lead  the  com- 
munity, but  still  in  distinct  dependence  upon  the  city 
bishop. 

From  the  time  of  the  Nicene  Council  celibacy 
began  to  be  regarded  as  the  rule  for  the  higher  orders, 
but  was  not  strictly  enforced,  though  second  marriages 
were  not  allowed  and  generally  marriage  after  ordina- 
tion was  prohibited.  The  archdeacon  appears  in  this 
period  as  the  assistant  and  usually  successor  to  the 
bishop;  the  archpresbyter  as  head  of  the  college  of 
presbyters  and  the  visitator,  a  city  presbyter  with 
oversight  of  the  country  churches  (later,  in  the  West, 
called  a  rural  dean).  The  order  of  deaconesses  gradu- 
ally lost  its  early  importance;  the  Western  Church 
opposing  their  ordination  and  at  last  in  the  fifth  and 
sixth  centuries  forbidding  it  altogether. 

In  the  East,  however,  the  seclusion  of  women  gave 
the  order  a  longer  continuance  down  to  the  twelfth 
century. 

Other  minor  orders  were  added:  the  parabolani,  or 
nurses  to  care  for  the  sick,  and  the  fossarii  (or  copi- 


166    IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

atae)  the  grave-diggers.  Also  a  whole  set  of  function- 
aries for  the  administration  of  Church  property; 
showing  one  of  the  important  results  of  imperial  favor. 
These  were  the  stewards,  treasurers,  legal  assessors, 
syndics,  notaries,  secretaries  and  keepers  of  the 
archives,  frequently  though  not  necessarily  clergy- 
men. Apocrisiarii,  or  clerical  legates  at  the  imperial 
court,  became  almost  indispensable  to  patriarchs  and 
metropolitans. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCE 

Maclean,  A.  J. — Recent  Discoveries  Illustrating  Early  Chris- 
tian Worship,     pp.  108-116.     S.  P.  C.  K.     Lend.,  1904. 

§6.    The  Patriarchal  Constitution 

Already  the  Empire,  which  in  the  second  century 
had  comprised  forty  provinces,  had  been  reorganized 
by  Diocletian  and  established  by  Constantine  in  one 
hundred  and  nineteen  provinces,  united  into  thirteen 
dioceses  and  these  all  included  in  four  prefectures, — 
The  East,  Illyricum,  Italy  and  Gaul.  The  hierarchi- 
cal distinction  of  ranks  among  the  bishops  had  already 
appeared  in  the  Metropolitan  and  Apostolic  Sees. 
The  political  organization  of  the  Empire  tended  to 
increase  this  development  and  to  make  it  more 
definite  and  permanent,  although  there  was  no  at- 
tempt to  group  the  churches  according  to  the  divi- 
sions of  the  civil  provinces.  Many  of  the  bishops  of 
the  capitals  of  the  dioceses,^  especially  in  the  East, 

1  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  word  'diocese  '  in  this  early  period, 
and  indeed  down  to  the  seventh  century  at  least,  means  one  of 
the  thirteen  political  divisions  of  the  Empire. 


THE  ROMA N  PRIMA  CY  1 G7 

took  the  title  of  Exarch  and  claimed  superiority  over 
the  Metropolitans  and  other  provincial  bishops. 
But  the  Council  of  Nicasa  recognized  the  preeminence 
of  the  Bishops  of  Rome,  Alexandria  and  Antioch ;  to 
which  number  the  Second  Council  added  the  Bishop 
of  Constantinople,  as  being  Bishop  of  the  new  Rome. 
Jerusalem  was  added  by  an  edict  of  Theodosius  II  in 
432,  confirmed  by  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  451  a.d., 
giving  him  the  authority  over  the  dioceses  of  Pales- 
tine and  Arabia  (taken  from  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch). 
To  each  of  these  bishops  was  given  the  title  of 
patriarch  with  an  enlarged  jurisdiction  called  a  patri- 
arohate,  within  which  he  was  the  supreme  ecclesias- 
tical authority,  and,  at  the  head  of  his  patriarchal 
synod,  decided  all  the  affairs  of  the  churches  within 
his  patriarchate. 

§7.    The  Roman  Primacy 

Rome  was  steadily  growing  in  importance  and  sig- 
nificance. Although  still  the  stronghold  of  paganism, 
perhaps  because  of  the  struggle  which  that  very  fact 
necessitated,  the  Bishop  of  Rome  increased  in  in- 
fluence. Generally  regarded  as  the  successor  of  St. 
Peter,  and  the  head  of  the  only  Apostolic  See  in  the 
West,  his  wealth  had  steadily  increased ;  and  the  exten- 
sion of  Christianity  in  the  West,  proceeding  directly  or 
indirectly  from  Rome,  made  the  Bishop  of  Rome  the 
natural  and  undisputed  head  of  the  Church  in  the 
West.  As  far  as  individual  bishops  are  concerned, 
however,  Hosius  of  Cordova,  Athanasius  of  Alexan- 


168    IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

dria,  Ambrose  of  Milan,  Eusebius  of  Caesarea  and 
Augustine  of  Hippo  were  of  far  greater  importance 
and  had  more  reputation  in  the  fourth  century  than 
all  the  Roman  bishops  put  together.  The  removal  of 
the  seat  of  Empire  from  Rome,  even  as  early  as  the 
reign  of  Diocletian  (who  visited  Rome  only  once),  had 
given  the  Bishop  a  free  hand;  and  after  that,  the  im- 
perial recognition  of  Christianity  gave  to  the  Bishop 
of  Rome  imperial  prerogatives. 

The  Roman  Primacy  of  the  fourth  century  de- 
veloped naturally  out  of  the  Latin  patriarchate  of  the 
third.  The  rivalry  with  Constantinople  (to  which  the 
Council  of  381  A.D.  had  conceded  the  precedence  in 
honor  next  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  because  it  was  the 
new  Rome)  prevented  its  extension  in  the  East;  but 
it  grew  steadily,  though  not  without  opposition,  in  the 
West.  But  the  monarchical  tendency  of  the  hierarchy 
was  much  stronger  in  the  West  than  in  the  East  and 
was  urging  a  universal  monarchy  in  the  Church.  For 
such  a  position  Rome  had  the  greatest  advantages, — 
already  realized  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  third  cen- 
tury and  now  greatly  increased  in  the  fourth  century. 

(i)  Growth  of  appellate  jurisdiction.  At  first  this 
was  a  general  custom ;  appeals  were  made  to  distin- 
guished bishops  (as  Athanasius,  Basil  the  Great  and 
others),  as  is  shown  by  their  canonical  letters.  But 
the  Council  of  Sardica,  343  a.d.,  declared  that  "a 
bishop  deposed  by  Arian  influence  on  account  of  his 
Nicene  orthodoxy,  who  felt  that  he  had  a  good  cause, 
might  apply  out  of  reverence  to  the  memory  of  the 


THE  ROMAN  PRIMACY  169 

Apostle  Peter,  to  the  Roman  Bishop  Julius  and  should 
leave  it  to  him  either  to  ratify  the  deposition  or  to 
summon  a  new  council ;  and  the  vacant  bishopric 
should  not  be  filled  till  the  decision  of  Rome  had  been 
received."  This  was  clearly  granting  an  appellate  and 
revisory  jurisdiction  in  the  case  of  a  condemned  or  de- 
posed bishop,  even  of  the  East;  but  it  was  conferred  as 
a  new  power,  and  apparently  only  on  Julius  in  person 
for  particular  cases  in  a  special  emergency  and  by  a  lo- 
cal council  from  which  the  Eastern  bishops  had  with- 
drawn. But  Rome  made  it  the  basis  of  a  general 
system,  not  merely  of  hearing  appeals  but  of  summon- 
ing cases;  and,  leaving  out  the  name  of  Julius,  quoted 
it  as  one  of  the  Canons  of  Nicaea,  in  order  to  give  it 
the  authority  of  a  General  Council.  The  ecclesi- 
astical law,  as  declared  in  the  General  Councils,  381, 
451  and  680  A.D.,  was  that  all  matters  should  be  de- 
cided in  the  provincial  synods  with  the  right  of  appeal 
to  the  patriarch  of  that  patriarchate.  But  Rome  had 
been  the  giver  of  law  when,  in  the  civil  provincial 
courts  of  the  Empire,  matters  not  regulated  by  local 
law  or  custom  were  decided  according  to  the  law  of 
the  city  of  Rome. 

(2)  Rome's  established  orthodoxy  and  doctrinal 
stability  amid  the  great  controversies  of  the  fourth 
and  succeeding  centuries  made  Rome  a  centre  of 
counsel  and  protection ;  and  she  appears  uniformly  as 
the  representative  and  organ  of  all  Latin  Christendom. 
The  only  exceptions  to  the  orthodoxy  of  the  early  Bish- 
ops of  Rome  were  Liberius,  who  gained  his  recall  from 

i4 


1 70    I M PERI  A  L  CHUR  CH  A  ND  NICENE  FA  ITH 

exile  358  A.D.  by  subscribing  a  semi-Arian  formula, 
and  Honorius,  anathematized  as  a  Monothelite  by  the 
Council  681  A.D.  Felix,  the  Arian,  forcibly  placed 
in  the  See  of  Rome  by  Constantine  355  a.d. ,  is  gen- 
erally regarded  as  an  anti-Pope. 

(3)  Amid  the  political  confusion  in  the  West  and 
in  the  conflict  with  the  Arian  Goths  and  Vandals,  the 
orthodox  churches  of  the  West  needed  a  centre  of 
unity  and  the  protection  of  a  strong  central  authority 
which  Rome  was  in  every  way  fitted  to  supply. 

(4)  The  Emperors  favored  this  primacy  and  growth 
of  authority  in  the  interest  of  order  and  unity  in  the 
Empire  itself.  The  Donation  of  Constantine,  how- 
ever, is  recognized  as  a  forgery  of  the  eighth  century. 
But  a  decree  of  Gratian,  378  a.d.,  gave  to  Damasus 
the  right  of  decision  without  appeal  against  all  clergy 
involved  in  the  schism  led  by  Felix,  the  anti-Pope. 

(5)  In  this  period  begins  the  series  of  decretal 
letters  from  the  Bishops  of  Rome,  which  illustrate  and 
confirm  their  power,  first  in  a  tone  of  parental  coun- 
sel and  later  with  definite  apostolic  authority.  The 
extant  series  of  genuine  decretals  begins  with  Siri- 
cius  in  385  ;  though  he  refers  to  the  general  decrees  of 
a  predecessor,  Liberius  (352-366  a.d,). 

(6)  The  sixth  canon  of  Nicsea  recognized  Rome's 
comprehensive  position  in  the  declaration  that  Alex- 
andria should  have  authority  over  all  the  bishops  of 
Egypt  together  with  Libya  and  Pentapolis,  just  as 
such  a  superior  authority  was  customarily  exercised 
by  the  Bishop  of  Rome  over  the  suburbican  churches. 


THE  ROMAN  PRIMACY  171 

understanding  thereby  the  political  diocese  of  Rome, 
which  included  most  of  central  Italy,  and  all  lower 
Italy  with  Sicily,  Corsica  and  Sardinia.  In  northern 
Italy,  the  metropolitan  cities,  Milan,  Aquileia,  and 
Ravenna,  maintained  their  independence  for  some 
time  longer. 

Thus  a  strong  and  authoritative  primacy  was  built 
up  in  this  period;  but  the  real  and  essential  founda- 
tions of  the  papacy  were  added  in  the  next  period  by 
Innocent  and  Leo. 

The  problem  of  how  to  settle  divisions  and  contests 
between  different  bishops  could  have  been  solved  by 
a  recognized  central  authority;  but  there  was  none. 
Rome  played  only  a  feeble  part  at  the  Council  of 
Nicaea,  and  little  deference  was  paid  to  it  by  the 
Church  of  the  East.  Even  in  the  West,  the  Dona- 
tists  had  put  it  in  a  sorry  plight.  There  was  no 
directing  power,  no  efficient  expression  of  Christian 
unity.  The  papacy,  as  the  West  knew  it  later,  did 
not  yet  exist.  The  place  that  it  was  to  occupy  was 
held  by  the  state  without  protest.  The  Christian  re- 
ligion was  the  religion  of  the  Emperor;  not  only  in 
the  sense  that  he  professed  it,  but  directed  it.  The 
General  Councils  owed  to  him  their  formation,  their 
progress,  their  general  direction  and  the  sanction  of 
his  decrees  to  make  them  valid. 

Yet  the  bishops  were  not  mere  functionaries  of  the 
State;  elections  generally  were  free,  and  the  Councils 
were  representative  institutions. 


172     IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Allies,  T.  W. —  St.  Peter,  His  Name  and  Office.      Lond,  1895. 
Littledale,  R.  F.— The  Petrine  Claims.     N.  Y.,  1899. 
Guggenberger,   A.    (S.  J.) — General    History    of    Christian 
Events.    3  vols.    Vol.  I,  Papacy  and  Empire.      St.  Louis,  1909. 
Lea,  H.  C. —  Studies  in  Church  Histor>^    pp.  1 12-140. 
See  also  A.  Ill,  §  7,  (4). 

§8.    Theological  Schools  and  Tendencies 

After  the  death  of  Dionysius,  265  a.d.,  two  different 
tendencies  appeared  in  the  Alexandrian  School.  The 
school  of  Origen  served  to  introduce  throughout  the 
whole  Church  a  more  spiritual  mode  of  apprehending 
the  system  of  faith,  and  to  purge  it  everywhere  of  a 
crude  anthropomorphism  and  of  the  sensuous  notions 
of  Chiliasm.  The  old  Alexandrians  held  to  Origen 
and  developed  a  free  scientific  tendency  which  culmi- 
nated in  the  Semi-Arians  in  the  midlde  of  the  fourth 
century.  The  new  Alexandrian  School  was  the  pre- 
vailing one  for  the  fourth  century.  Its  older  repre- 
sentatives also  remained  attached  to  Origen.  By 
carrying  out  logically  the  doctrine  of  the  'eternal 
generation'  of  the  Son,  they  eliminated  the  element  of 
subordinationism,  and  so  broke  away  from  the  old 
Alexandrian  School  and  came  into  closer  reh  tions 
with  the  Western  theology.  They  still  differed  from 
the  Antiochian  School  in  their  fondness  for  mystical 
speculative  thought.  With  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  d. 
444  A.D.,  the  signs  of  weakening  began  to  appear. 
Origen's  influence,  however,  through  his  writings  was 
felt   all    through    the    East.     The    ancient    Church 


THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS  AND  TENDENCIES    173 

reached  its  highest  glory  during  the  fourth  and  fifth 
centuries.  The  middle  of  the  fifth  century  (marked  by 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon)  may  be  regarded  as  the 
turning-point;  after  which  the  decline  sets  in,  due  to 
the  disappearance  of  independent  research,  hierarchi- 
cal exclusiveness,  narrowing  monasticism,  political 
oppression  and  encroaching  barbarism.  The  preced- 
ing period,  to  313  a.d.,  may  be  called  the  apologetical 
period ;  this  period,  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries, 
was  the  systematizing  period.  The  school  of  Origen 
marks  the  point  of  transition.  Internal  antagonisms 
of  thought  became  more  evident  and  self-conscious ; 
points  of  view  appeared  more  partial  and  prejudiced, 
and  controversies  about  single  doctrines  arose.  The 
characteristic  differences  between  the  dogmatic  ten- 
dencies in  the  East  and  those  in  the  West  became 
apparent.  In  the  East  the  Greek  intellectual  spirit 
and  speculative  tendency  predominated ;  in  the  West 
the  more  literal,  calm  and  practical  Roman  spirit  pre- 
vailed. This  is  seen  in  the  contrast  between  the 
leaders,  and  also  between  the  controversies, —  in  the 
East,  Trinitarian  and  Christological;  in  the  West, 
Soteriological.  The  Antiochian  School  also  felt  the 
influence  of  Origen,  especially  on  the  side  of  Biblical 
interpretation;  but  in  place  of  the  allegorical  method 
to  which  Origen  and  the  Alexandrian  School  adhered 
it  gave  greater  prominence  to  the  exegetical,  grammat- 
ical, logical  and  historical  or  more  strictly  scientific 
method.  It  aimed  at  a  positive,  rational  and  logical 
conception  of  Christianity.     The  tendency  in  Chris- 


174     IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

tology  is  seen  in  the  attempt  to  distinguish  between 
the  divine  and  human  in  Christ,  with  a  greater 
emphasis  laid  on  the  human  in  order  to  secure  its  due 
recognition,  but  tending  to  an  abstract  separation  of 
the  two  Natures.  The  Alexandrians  favored  a  con- 
nection of  the  divine  and  the  human  in  the  incar- 
nation so  close  that  it  was  in  danger  of  losing  the 
human  in  the  divine,  or  at  least  of  mixing  it  with  the 
divine.  The  principal  members  of  this  school  were: 
Eusebius  of  Emesa,  d.  360;  Diodorus  of  Tarsus,  d. 
390;  John  Chrysostom,  d.  407;  Theodore  of  Mopsues- 
tia,  d.  428;  his  brother  Polychronius,  and  Thcodoret  of 
Cyprus,  d.  457  a.d.  Other  Greek  teachers  were:  Cyril 
of  Jerusalem,  a  semi-Arian  but  severely  persecuted 
by  the  Arians  and  afterwards  professing  orthodoxy, 
d.  386;  Epiphanius  of  Salamis,  d.  403;  Palladius  of 
Galatia,  d.  before  431 ;  and  Nilus,  d.  450  a.d. 

The  foremost  member  of  the  Old  Alexandrian  School 
was  Eusebius  (the  friend)  of  Pamphilius,  Bishop  of 
Caesarea,  the  historian,  d.  340  a.d.  The  New  Alexan- 
drian School  was  directly  opposed  to  the  Antiochian 
School.  Its  most  prominent  representatives  were: 
Athanasius,  d.  373;  the  three  great  Cappadocians, 
Basil,  d.  379,  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  d.  389,  and 
Gregory  of  Nyssa,  d.  394;  Appollinaris  (the  younger) 
d.  390;  Didymus  the  Blind,  d.  395;  Macarius  Magnes, 
d.  390;  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  d.  444;  and  Isidore  of 
Pelusium,  d.  450  a.d.  Also  Synesius  of  Cyrene,  Bish- 
op of  Ptolemais,  410  a.d.,  and  an  enthusiastic  pupil 
of  Hypatia. 


THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS  AND  TENDENCIES    175 

The  Western  theology,  though  intensely  practical 
in  its  insistence  on  the  application  of  Christianity  to 
life,  and  emphasizing  strongly  the  doctrines  resulting 
therefrom,  was  much  influenced  by  the  theological 
movements  in  the  East.  Four  distinct  tendencies 
maybe  noted:  (i)  the  school  started  by  Tertullian 
and  Cyprian,  influenced  later  by  the  New  Alexandrian 
School;  appearing  in  Hilary,  Ambrose,  Augustine 
(who  marked  a  distinct  school  in  the  West),  with  his 
followers  Paulinus  of  Milan,  Paulus  Orosius,  Marius 
Mercator  and  Prosper  Aquitanicus,  d.  460  a.d.,  and 
Caesarius  of  Aries,  d.  543  a.d,  (2)  The  School  of 
Jerome,  d.  420  a.d.,  and  Rufiuus,  d.  410  a.d.  (3)  The 
School  of  the  Pelagians:  Pelagius,  Celestine  and 
Julianus,  Bishop  of  Eclanum.  (4)  The  School  of  the 
Semi-Pelagians:  John  Cassianus,  d.  432;  Vincentius 
of  Lerins,  d.  450;  Eucherius  of  Lyons,  d.  450;  Sal- 
vianus,  a  presbyter  of  Marseilles,  d.  485 ;  Faustus 
of  Rhegium,  d.  493;  Gennadius  of  Marseilles,  and 
Arnobius  the  Younger.  Also,  among  the  Latin 
writers  of  the  fourth  century  are:  Julius,  Firmicius, 
Maternus,  Lucifer  of  Calaris,  Marius  Victorius, 
Pacianus  of  Barcelona,  Philaster  of  Brescia,  Zeno 
of  Verona  and  Martin  of  Tours;  and  in  the  fiifth 
century,  Sulpicius  Severus,  and,  of  course,  Leo  the 
Great. 

In  the  far  East  the  Syrian  School  showed  the  orien- 
tal spirit, —  mysticism,  theosophy  and  asceticism, — 
yet  practical  and  homiletical  as  opposed  to  the  allego- 
rical and  critical.  Jacob  of  Nisibis,  d.  338;  Aphruates, 


176    IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

d.   345;   Ephraem  the  Syrian,  d.    378;   and  Ibas   of 
Edessa,  d.  457  a.d. 

The  Church  Historians  should  receive  special 
notice.  Eusebius  of  Csesarea,  the  father  of  Church 
History,  d.  340,  wrote  Ecclesiastical  History  from 
the  Birth  of  Christ  to  324  a.d..  Life  and  Eulogy  of 
Constantine,  and  a  Chronicle,  beside  other  works. 
His  history  is  continued  by  three  writers:  Socrates, 
306-439;  Sozomen,  323-423;  Theodoret,  Bishop  of 
Cyprus,  325-429.  Theodoret  wrote  also  Historia  Re- 
ligiosa,  comprising  biographies  of  hermits  and  monks. 
Evagrius  of  Antioch  is  the  last  real  continuator 
of  Eusebius  and  Theodoret.  His  history  extends  from 
43 1 -594-  Theodorus  Lector  compiled  an  abstract  of 
Socrates,  Sozomen  and  Theodoret,  called  Historia  Tri- 
partita, and  also  wrote  a  continuation  of  Socrates  from 
431  to  518.  Mention  should  be  made  of  Philostorgius, 
an  Arian,  who  wrote  a  history  from  318  to  423. 
Fragments  only  have  been  preserved  by  Photius,  d. 
891,  whose  Muriobiblion  contains  reports  and  extracts 
from  nearly  three  hundred  Christian  and  pagan 
writings.  In  Latin,  Rufinus  translated  the  history  of 
Eusebius,  and  continued  it  to  395 ;  but  it  is  of  little 
value.  Cassiodorus,  d.  562,  compiled  an  abstract  of 
Socrates,  Sozomen  and  Theodoret  in  twelve  books, 
called  Historia  Tripartita.  Jerome's  Catalogue  of 
Illustrious  Men,  written  in  392  and  continued  by 
Gennadius  to  495,  belongs  in  this  list.  Sulpicius 
Severus  wrote  Sacred  History  from  the  Creation  to 
400  A.D.,  also  Life  of  Martin  of  Tours.     Paulus  Ore- 


THE  TRINITARIAN  CONTROVERSY  177 

sius  also  wrote,  in  417,  a  Universal  History,  not  of 
much  value. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Baker,  J.  F.  Bethune. — Introduction  to  the  History  of  Chris- 
tian Doctrine. 

Scott. —  Origin  and  Development  of  Nicene  Theology. 

Bull,  G. — Defense  of  the  Nicene  Faith.     Lond.,  1851. 

Brown,  W.  A. — Relations  of  Theology  and  Church  History. 

Neale,  J.  M. — History  of  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch.  pp. 
2-152. 

§9.    The  Trinitarian  Controversy  and  the 
First  Two  General  Councils 

Soon  after  the  persecutions  ceased  and  the  Church 
received  a  legal  sanction  for  its  existence,  the  theo- 
logical controversies,  which  began  in  the  third  cen- 
tury, broke  out  afresh  and,  with  the  General  Councils 
held  in  connection  with  them,  lasted  for  nearly  four 
centuries.  The  following  outline  presents  the  list  of 
the  first  four  General  Councils  in  relation  to  the 
various  phases  of  these  controversies,  (i)  Arius 
asserted  the  humanity  of  Christ,  denying  His  essential 
divinity.  Condemned  by  the  First  General  Council 
at  Nicsea,  325  a.d.,  which  declared  His  essential 
divinity.  (2)  Apollinaris  asserted  the  divinity  of 
Christ  in  such  a  way  as  to  deny  His  real  humanity. 
Condemned  by  the  Second  General  Council  at  Con- 
stantinople, 381  A.D.,  which  declared  His  real  human- 
ity. (3)  Nestorius  emphasized  the  humanity  of 
Christ  in  such  a  way  as  to  separate  it  from  His  real 
divinity,    seeming  to    assert    a  double   personality. 


178    IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

Condemned  by  the  Third  General  Council  at  Ephesus, 
431  A.D.,  which  declared  the  one  divine-human  per- 
sonality of  Christ.  (4)  Eutyches  asserted  the  per- 
sonal unity  of  Christ  in  such  a  way  as  to  obliterate 
the  distinction  of  natures,  making  the  divine  Logos 
absorb  the  human  nature.  Condemned  by  the  Fourth 
General  Council  at  Chalcedon,  451  a.d.,  which  de- 
clared the  union  in  one  Person  of  the  two  natures 
without  either  confusion,  conversion,  severance  or 
division.  (The  distinction  of  the  natures  being  in  no 
wise  abolished  by  their  union,  but  the  peculiarity  of 
each  nature  being  maintained  and  both  concurring  in 
one  person  and  hypostasis.) 

The  first,  or  Arian  Controversy,  is  considered  in 
three  phases:  (i)  the  Arian  Controversy  proper,  318 
to  325;  (2)  the  Semi-Arian  reaction,  325  to  361;  (3) 
The  victory  of  the  Nicene  faith,  361  to  381.  The 
controversy  was  foreshadowed  and  the  preliminaries 
prepared  in  the  theological  discussions  of  the  third 
century  (see  A.  Ill,  §§  3,  4).  It  had  its  origin  in  the 
contradictory  elements  of  Origen's  Christology  and 
in  the  antagonism  between  the  Antiochian  and  Alex- 
andrian theology.  Origen  taught  the  'eternal  genera- 
tion' of  the  Son,  which  led  logically  to  sameness  of  sub- 
stance; but  taught  also  the  subordination  of  the  Son, 
begotten  with  a  divine  nature,  but  of  a  relative,  secon- 
dary divinity.  The  two  original  parties  in  the  contro- 
versy were  Alexander,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  and 
Arius,  a  presbyter  from  whom  the  controversy  gets  its 
name.    Alexander  in  a  charge  to  his  clergy  emphasized 


THE  TRINITARIAN  CONTROVERSY  179 

the  side  of  Origen's  teaching  asserting  the  'eternal 
generation'  of  the  Son.  Arius  answered  him,  taking  the 
subordinationist  side  as  a  starting  point.  He  accused 
Alexander  of  Sabellianism ;  and,  in  order  to  maintain 
a  distinction  between  the  Father  and  the  Son,  de- 
clared that,  although  the  Son  was  before  all  time, 
"there  was  when  he  was  not";  that  "by  the  will  of 
the  Father  he  was  created  out  of  nothing,"  and  there- 
fore a  creature  subject  to  change.  Alexander  called  a 
synod  at  Alexandria  in  321  which  deposed  and  ex- 
communicated Arius  and  his  followers.  But  he  was 
very  popular  and  his  teachings  spread.  Eusebius  of 
Nicomedia  and  Eusebius  of  Caesarea  defended  him, 
and  soon  the  whole  Church  was  involved  in  the  con- 
troversy. Constantine  by  letters  and  by  the  media- 
tion of  the  aged  Bishop  Hosius  of  Cordova  sought  to 
reconcile  the  parties,  but  in  vain;  and  the  first  General 
Council  was  called  by  the  Emperor  at  Nicsea  in  325 
to  settle  the  matter.  The  bishops  were  summoned  by 
a  personal  letter  putting  the  public  conveyances  at 
their  disposal  and  defraying  their  expenses  out  of  the 
imperial  treasury.  Each  bishop  was  allowed  two 
attendant  presbyters  and  three  servants.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  three  hundred  and  eighteen  bishops,  about 
one-sixth  of  the  whole  episcopate,  attended,  so  it  is 
called  "the  council  of  the  three  hundred  and  eighteen" 
after  the  number  of  the  servants  of  Abraham.  (Gen. 
xiv:i4).  The  whole  number  of  the  clergy  present  was 
about  two  thousand.  Only  seven  delegates  from  the 
Western  Church  were  present ;  two  presbyters  repre- 


180     IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

sented  Sylvester  of  Rome  who  was  too  old  to  attend. 
There  were  three  parties  in  the  Council:  (i)  The 
Alexandrian  party,  at  first  in  the  minority;  (2)  The 
Arian  party  of  about  twenty  bishops,  led  by  Arius 
and  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia;  (3)  A  middle  party, 
strict  Origenists  (in  the  majority  at  first)  led  by  the 
historian  Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  one  of  the  most  learned 
men  of  his  time  in  Biblical  and  historical  knowledge 
and  literature,  philosophy  and  oratory.  By  the  elo- 
quence, learning  and  determination  of  Athanasius,  a 
young  deacon  of  clear  intellect,  ceaseless  energy  and 
indomitable  will,  the  term  'homoousios,'  i.e.,  of  the 
same  substance  or  essence,  was  accepted  as  ex- 
pressing the  relation  of  the  Son  to  the  Father,  prob- 
ably derived  from  Tertullian  through  Dionysius  of 
Rome.  The  creed  drawn  up  differs  slightly  from 
our  Nicene  Creed,  ending  with,  "And  in  the  Holy 
Ghost."  Almost  all  the  bishops  signed.  Only  Arius 
and  two  Egyptian  bishops  refused  and  were  banished. 
Three  months  later  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  and 
Theognis  of  Nicaea,  who  opposed  the  term  'homoou- 
sios,'  were  also  banished.  But  the  decision  at 
Nicaea  was  only  the  beginning  of  the  struggle.  An 
intermediate  period  of  great  excitement  ensued  during 
which  council  was  held  against  council,  creed  was 
set  forth  against  creed,  and  anathemas  hurled  back 
and  forth.  Athanasius  succeeded  Alexander  in  328 
as  bishop;  but  the  Arian  synods  held  at  Tyre, 
and  at  Constantinople  in  335  condemned  and  deposed 
him,  and  he  was  banished  by  the  Emperor.     Arius 


THE  TRINITARIAN  CONTROVERSY  181 

was  recalled  in  336,  but  died  in  the  same  year  on  the 
eve  of  his  restoration.  After  the  death  of  Constan- 
tine,  in  337,  Athanasius  was  recalled  in  338.  But 
Arianism  prevailed  in  the  East;  Constantius  being 
decidedly  favorable  to  the  Eusebians  (the  Arian  party 
under  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  who  was  made  Bishop 
of  Constantinople  in  338,  and  by  whose  influence 
Athanasius  was  again  banished  in  339  or  340).  A 
synod  was  held  at  Antioch  in  341,  for  the  dedication 
of  Constantine's  church  (so  called  the  Council  of  the 
Dedication),  which  confirmed  the  deposition  of 
Athanasius  who  had  found  a  refuge  with  Julius  of 
Rome,  for  the  West  was  steadfastly  Nicene.  A 
synod  at  Rome  in  341  protested  against  the  Eastern 
synods  and  upheld  Athanasius.  To  heal  the  division 
the  two  emperors,  Constantius  and  Constans,  called  a 
General  Council  to  meet  at  Sardica  in  343.  Here  the 
Nicene  party  and  the  Roman  influence  prevailed 
under  the  presidency  of  Hosius  of  Cordova.  But  the 
Arian  Eastern  bishops  refused  to  take  part  and  with- 
drew to  an  opposition  council  at  Philippopolis  and 
there  confirmed  the  decrees  of  341,  and  held  another 
synod  at  Antioch  in  344  setting  forth  the  "Prolix  Ex- 
position,' '  but  a  synod  at  Milan  rejected  their  overture. 
Constantius  was  compelled  by  his  brother  Constans 
to  restore  Athanasius  to  his  bishopric  in  346;  but 
after  the  death  of  Constans  in  350,  the  Emperor  sum- 
moned three  successive  synods  in  favor  of  a  moderate 
Arianism  —  Sirmium  351,  Aries  353,  and  Milan  355  — 
and  forced  the  decrees  of  these  councils  on  the  Western 


182    IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

Church  and  deposed  and  banished  the  resisting  bish- 
ops,—  Hosius  of  Cordova,  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Lucifer 
of  Calaris  and  others  including  Liberius  of  Rome  (in 
whose  place  he  put  the  Arian  anti-Pope  Felix)  —  and 
drove  out  Athanasius  with  armed  soldiers  as  a  rebel, 
putting  in  his  place  the  Arian,  George  of  Cappadocia, 
356  A.D.  Thus  Arianism  in  the  form  Horaoiousian- 
ism  was  supreme.  Both  Hosius  and  Liberius  later 
signed  the  Semi-Arian  Creed  of  one  of  the  synods, 
and  were  restored  to  their  bishoprics.  At  this  time 
Athanasius  stood  not  only  against  the  world  but 
against  the  Church.  Hosius  and  Liberius  repented 
afterward  and  died  in  the  Nicene  faith.  This  victory 
of  the  Arians,  gained  by  compromise,  was  soon  lost, 
for  they  began  to  divide  again  into  various  factions. 
The  Semi-Arians  or  Eusebians  held  to  the  term 
'homoiousios'  (of  like  essence),  and  included  many  who 
had  held  to  the  Creed  of  Nicaea.  The  extreme  Arians, — 
favored  by  Eudoxius,  bishop  of  Antioch,  his  deacon 
Aetius,  and  Eunomius,  bishop  of  Cyzicus,  who  gave 
the  name  Eunomians  to  the  party, —  held  to  the  term 
'heteroousios'  (of  a  different  essence)  or  'anomoios' 
(unlike),  so  called  Anomoeans,  Heterousiasts  and  Ex- 
oukontions  (ex  ouk  onton,  out  of  nothing).  This  led  to 
another  series  of  Councils:  Second,  Third  and  Fourth 
at  Sirmium,  357,  358  and  359,  Antioch  358,  Ancyra 
358,  Seleucia  and  Rimini  359,  Constantinople  360. 
The  compromise  of  'homoios'  (like,  saying  nothing 
about  the  essence)  was  proposed,  but  without  bringing 
about  harmony.  On  the  death  of  Constantius  in  361  the 


THE  TRINITARIAN  CONTROVi:./iSY  183 

ca4rt  favor  was  withdrawn  from  the  Arians  and  the 
way  prepared  for  the  final  victory  of  the  Nicene  Creed. 
Julian  tolerated  all  parties,  hoping  they  would  destroy 
each  other.  Athanasius  was  recalled;  though  again 
banished,  and  again  recalled.  A  series  of  synods  in 
Rome,  Milan,  Gaul,  Egypt  and  the  East,  with  the 
efforts  of  Athanasius  and  the  three  great  Cappado- 
cians,  reestablished  the  Nicene  orthodoxy ;  but 
Athanasius  did  not  live  to  see  its  final  triumph,  as  he 
died  in  373.  During  his  episcopate  of  forty-five  years 
he  had  been  banished  five  times  and  had  spent  nearly 
twenty  years  in  exile.  Under  the  Emperor  Valens 
364  to  378,  Arianism  was  still  strong  in  the  East;  but 
in  the  accession  of  Theodosius  in  379  (a  Spaniard,  de- 
voted to  the  Nicene  faith),  the  triumph  of  the  Nicene 
Creed  was  secured ;  and  it  was  reaffirmed  at  the  Second 
General  Council  held  at  Constantinople  in  381,  al- 
though only  150  bishops  were  present,  hence  called 
"the  council  of  the  one  hundred  and  fifty."  The 
Latin  Church  was  not  represented  at  all.  First, 
Gregory  of  Nazianzus  and,  after  his  resignation, 
Nectarius  of  Constantinople  presided.  The  third 
canon  of  the  Council  assigned  to  the  Bishop  of  new 
Rome  the  first  rank  after  the  Bishop  of  the  old  Rome, 
and  made  the  newly  founded  Constantinople  a  patri- 
archate. The  creed  here  set  forth  was  that  of  the 
Council  of  Nicaea  without  any  alteration,  and  it  was 
declared  the  official  creed  of  the  Church  and  of  the 
Empire.  Only  those  bishops  who  held  it  were  to  re- 
tain their  churches,  and  the  public  worship  of  heretics 


184     IMJr  '^^^AL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

was  forbidden.  There  was  presented  at  the  Council, 
however,  by  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  the  creed  of  his 
church,  by  which  he  sought  to  show  his  agreement 
with  the  Nicene  faith.  It  had  appeared  first  350  a.d., 
and  in  an  enlarged  form  in  the  Ancoratus  of  Epiphanius 
c.  374  A.D,  This  creed,  as  presented  by  Cyril,  was 
approved  by  the  Council,  and  by  a  confusion  of  his- 
tory became  known  and  accepted  as  the  Nicene  Creed, 
though  it  was  not  mentioned  at  Ephesus  in  431;  but 
at  Chalcedon,  in  451,  it  was  presented  as  the  creed 
of  "the  one  hundred  and  fifty,"  put  forth  in  381, 
though  recognized  as  distinct  from  the  creed  of  325. 
Somewhat  later,  by  a  process  and  at  a  time  unknown 
to  us,  the  substitution  was  made;  and  the  creed  of 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem  has  since  been  known  and  held  as 
the  Nicene  Creed  of  Christendom. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Stanley,  A.  P. — History  of  the  Eastern  Church,  pp.  03-303. 
Lond.,  1 86 1. 

Paine. —  Critical  History  of  the  Evolution  of  Trinitarianism. 

Moule. — Outlines  of  Christian  Doctrme. 

Kaye,  J. — Council  of  Nicaea.     Lond.,  1883. 

Newman,  J.  H. — Arians  of  the  Fourth  Century.     Lond.,  1888. 

Gwatkin,  H.  M.— The  Arian  Controversy.     N.  Y.,  1889. 

Gwatkin,  H.  M. — Studies  of  Arianism.     2nd  ed.     Camb.,  1900. 

Robertson,  A. —  Athanasius.     Oxford,  1892. 

Baker,  J.  F.  Bethune. — Meaning  of  Homoousius.  Camb. 
Texts  and  Studies,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  1-83. 

Hort,  F.  J.  A. — Two  Dissertations.  II.  On  the  Constanti- 
nopolitan  Creed,    pp.  73-150.     Lond.,  1876. 


THE  CHRISTOLOGICAL  CONTROVERSY       185 

§10.    Apollinaris  and  the  Beginning  of  the 
Christological  Controversy 

Before  the  Arian  controversy  was  settled,  discus- 
sions arose  regarding  the  two  natures,  divine  and 
human,  in  the  one  person  of  Christ;  indeed  this 
Christological  controversy  was  involved  in  and  grew 
out  of  the  Trinitarian.  Apollinaris  of  Laodicea,  a 
fine  classical  scholar  with  poetic  gifts,  a  brilliant  de- 
fender of  Christianity  against  pagan  philosophy,  and 
of  Nicene  orthodoxy  against  the  Arians,  attempted 
to  explain  the  way  in  which  the  divine  was  united 
with  the  human  nature  in  Christ.  He  maintained 
that  a  human  being  was  made  up  of  three  essential 
parts  or  elements, —  body,  animal  soul,  and  spirit  or 
intellectual  soul ;  and  that  Christ  had  assumed  the 
human  body  and  animal  soul,  but  that  the  place  of  the 
spirit  was  taken  by  the  divine  Logos.  The  synod  of 
Alexandria,  362  a.d.,  in  opposition  to  this  theory 
expressly  declared  the  complete  human  nature  in 
Christ.  Apollinaris  left  the  Church  in  375  and  be- 
came the  leader  of  a  sect  which  was  condemned  at  the 
Second  General  Council.  He  died  in  390,  and  his  fol- 
lowers were  later  either  reconciled  to  the  Church  or 
absorbed  by  the  Monophysites. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Bright,  Wm. — Waymarks  of  Church  History,     pp.  56  ff. 
Harnack,  A. — History  of  Dogma.     IV,  pp.  1-225. 
Dorner,  J.  A. — Person  of  Christ.     II,  pp.  332-429. 


15 


186     IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NIC  EN E  FAITH 

§11.    Priscillianism  and  Heresy 

The  earlier  accounts  of  Priscillianism  have  been 
corrected  in  many  details,  and  the  general  verdict 
against  the  sect  has  been  softened,  by  the  fuller  know- 
ledge gained  from  the  writings  of  Priscillian  himself, 
discovered  in  1885  and  published  four  years  later  by 
G.  Schepss.  Priscillian  was  a  layman  of  noble  family, 
great  wealth,  high  intellectual  culture,  and  deep  re- 
ligious enthusiasm  with  strong  ascetic  tendencies.  He 
gained  many  followers;  and,  thinking  the  Church 
was  growing  too  worldly,  he  established  separate 
conventicles  of  his  adherents,  among  whom  were 
many  pious  women.  The  special  religious  services 
and  ascetic  practices  drew  their  members  away  from 
the  regular  services  of  the  Church  and  aroused  strong 
opposition  on  the  part  of  the  bishops,  particularly 
Hyginus  of  Cordova  and  the  metropolitan  Idacius  of 
Merida.  A  synod  of  twelve  bishops  at  Saragossa,  in 
380,  excommunicated  two  bishops  and  a  layman,  to- 
gether with  Priscillian  himself,  and  condemned  their 
teaching  and  practices,  which  seemed  to  be  confined 
to  irregularities  in  form,  and  excessive  asceticism. 
Priscillian,  however,  had  assumed  the  title  of  doctor, 
and  taught  the  wide  distribution  of  prophecy  outside  of 
Scripture,  and  of  witnesses  of  the  Spirit  outside  of 
the  regular  channels.  The  movement  continued  to 
spread,  and  Priscillian  was  made  Bishop  of  Avila. 
Charges  of  Gnostic  and  Manichaean  heresy  were  now 
brought  against  the  Priscillianists,  and  a  rescript  was 


PRISCILLIANISM  AND  HERESY  187 

procured  from  Gratian  banishing  them  from  the 
Empire.  Priscillian  with  some  of  his  bishops  then 
went  to  Rome  and  appealed  in  person  to  Damasus 
and  Ambrose,  repudiating  the  charges  of  heresy.  He 
failed  to  clear  himself  of  heresy,  but  secured,  by 
bribery  (it  was  said)  the  repeal  of  the  rescript  and  the 
restitution  of  their  churches.  Just  at  this  time,  383 
A.D.,  Maximus  the  Spanish  usurper  overthrew  and 
assassinated  Gratian,  and  seized  the  imperial  power  of 
the  West.  He  was  induced  to  order  the  accused  to  ap- 
pear at  the  synod  of  Bordeaux  in  384,  where  one  of  the 
bishops  was  deposed.  Priscillian  appealed  to  Maximus 
who  handed  him  over  to  trial,  thus  treating  him  as  a 
criminal.  He  was  forced,  probably  by  torture,  to  con- 
fess himself  guilty  of  magic  and  sorcery  and  con- 
demned to  death  with  several  of  his  followers,  in  385, 
one  of  the  first  instances  of  the  capital  punishment  of 
heretics ;  (the  first  instance  being  the  case  of  the  Dona- 
tists,  treated  as  transgressors  of  the  imperial  laws, 
and  some  of  their  leaders  put  to  death  in  316).  This 
brought  discredit  upon  all  who  were  engaged  in  the 
prosecution  and  called  forth  indignant  protests  from 
Martin  of  Tours,  Ambrose  of  Milan  and  Siricius  of 
Rome.  Priscillian  was  reverenced  as  a  martyr  by  his 
followers.  The  sect  spread  rapidly  in  Spain  and 
maintained  itself  through  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries. 
The  relation  of  the  Empire  to  heresy  runs  parallel 
with  its  attitude  to  paganism,  the  object  being  the 
same, —  to  establish  religious  unity  and  to  make  the 
Church   a   unified  organization   contributing   to  the 


188    IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

social  and  moral  strength  of  the  Empire.  Constantine 
established  the  precedent  for  imperial  intervention  in 
ecclesiastical  affairs;  his  sons  generally  followed  his 
policy.  Valentinian  I  held  aloof  from  the  religious 
conflict;  while  Gratian  and  Theodosius  finally  and 
decisively  fixed  the  alliance  of  the  state  with  eccle- 
siastical creed  and  persecution.  The  Donastist  Schism 
appeared  in  Africa  in  the  very  year  of  the  first  edict 
of  toleration.  On  an  appeal  to  Constantine  in  313 
he  referred  the  decision  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  and 
called  the  Council  of  Aries,  314  a.d.  Nothing  being 
effected,  the  Donatist  churches  were  confiscated  and 
some  of  their  leaders  were  put  to  death  in  316;  but 
this  policy  was  soon  given  up,  persecution  ceased  and 
the  Donatists  were  allowed  to  spread.  His  relation  to 
the  Arians  was  similar.  He  made  a  strong  personal 
appeal  to  both  parties  and  then  called  the  Council  of 
Nicsea,  and  the  Arians  were  exiled.  In  326  heretics 
were  excluded  from  the  privileges  and  exemptions 
allowed  to  the  Christian  clergy.  This  failed  to  restore 
harmony;  so  he  recalled  the  Arians  and  permitted  the 
deposition  of  Athanasian  bishops,  and  was  at  last 
baptized  by  the  Arian  bishop  Eusebius  of  Nicome- 
dia.  The  imperial  forces  were  used  under  his  suc- 
cessors to  seat  and  unseat  bishops  and  to  enforce  con- 
formity to  one  or  another  of  the  numerous  synods. 
The  division  was  hopelessly  confirmed  at  the  synod  of 
Sardica  in  343,  and  the  consequent  withdrawal  of  the 
Eastern  bishops.  Constantius  was  strongly  Arian,  and 
the  imperial  forces  were  frequently  used  against  the 


FRISCILLIANISM  AND  HERESY  189 

Athanasians,  forcing  submission,  except  in  the  case  of 
Athanasius  who  would  rather  be  exiled  than  yield, 
Julian's  policy  eliminated  political  interference  and 
left  heresy  a  purely  ecclesiastical  problem.  His  im- 
mediate successors  followed  the  same  policy  of  neu- 
trality. Valens,  however,  developed  an  extreme  Arian 
policy  which  drove  the  conservative  Arians  into  alli- 
ance with  the  Athanasians.  An  edict  of  toleration 
was  issued  in  376.  But  the  decisive  action  against 
heresy,  as  against  paganism,  was  taken  in  the  reigns 
of  Gratian  and  of  Theodosius.  Meetings  of  heretics 
were  forbidden  and  their  places  confiscated  by  Gra- 
tian at  the  outset;  though  afterwards  this  rule  was 
made  to  apply  only  to  Eunomians  and  Photinians  (ex- 
treme Arians),  and  to  Manichaeans.  Theodosius  pur- 
sued a  severer  policy.  Baptized  in  380  after  a  severe 
illness,  he  issued  an  edict  ordering  all  subjects  of  the 
Empire  to  "adhere  to  the  religion  delivered  by  the 
blessed  Peter  to  the  Romans,  the  doctrines  which  the 
Pontiff  Damasus  and  Peter,  Bishop  of  Alexandria, 
now  follow."  The  Second  General  Council  in  381, 
and  a  conference  of  all  the  sects  in  383,  tried  to  bring 
about  submission.  Another  edict  followed  in  which 
heretical  sects  were  forbidden  to  hold  meetings,  to 
ordain  priests,  or  to  promulgate  their  doctrines;  and 
their  places  of  assembly  were  confiscated.  The 
Arians  found  a  little  consideration  in  the  West  through 
the  influence  of  Justina,  mother  of  Valentinian  II ;  and 
the  emperor,  in  386,  gave  them  the  right  of  assembly, 
and  went  so  far  as  to  exile  Ambrose  for  resisting;  but 


190    IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

he  could  not  enforce  the  decree.  The  usurper  Maximus, 
383  to  388,  championed  the  Catholic  cause,  and  even  or- 
dered the  execution  of  Priscillian  and  some  of  his  fol- 
lowers. Justina  died  in  388,  and  Valentinian  II  with- 
drew his  grants  to  the  Arians.  The  victory  of  Theodo- 
sius,  followed  by  the  execution  of  Maximus,  made  his 
influence  supreme;  so  that  there  was  no  hope  for  the 
toleration  of  Arianism  in  the  West.  Already,  in  387, 
Theodosius  published  in  Constantinople  an  edict  for- 
bidding heretics  the  right  of  residing  in  the  cities  and 
of  ordaining  their  officials.  This  edict  was  repeated 
and  enforced;  so  that,  when  Arcadius  confirmed  and 
reenacted  his  father's  legislation  many  heretics  be- 
came reconciled  to  the  Church,  and  heresy  ceased 
to  be  a  political  problem  of  importance  in  the  East. 
Political  considerations  seem  to  have  been  of  more 
importance  in  th  eearlier  legislation;  but  in  the  case 
of  Gratian  and  Theodosius  religious  conviction  was  a 
stronger  motive  than  political  expediency,  which 
accounts  for  the  greater  severity  and  wider  extent  of 
their  persecutions.  Theodosius  made  the  violation 
of  divine  law  equivalent  to  sacrilege;  and  such  vio- 
lation involved  the  loss  of  certain  rights  of  Roman 
citizenship,  such  as  leaving  or  receiving  legacies, 
holding  ofifice  in  the  court  or  army;  and  these  penalties 
were  enforced  against  some  of  the  heretical  sects,  and 
also  against  apostates. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Newman,  J.  H. — Historical  Sketches.     Ill,  pp.  195-202 
Boyd,  W.  K. — Ecclesiastical  Edicts,    pp.  33-70. 


MONASTLCISM  191 


§12.     MONASTICISM 

This  is  one  of  the  great  institutions  of  the  Church, 
with  far-reaching  influences  and  results.  The  hier- 
archy was  the  development  of  the  city;  monasticism 
of  the  country.  Asceticism  existed  in  the  Church 
from  the  beginning,  and  did  not  originate  with 
Christianity.  In  the  second  century  a  class  of 
orthodox  Christians  who  desired  to  attain  Christian 
perfection  were  called  abstinents  or  ascetics,  though 
Tatian  joined  the  sect  of  the  Encratites.  By  the 
third  century  Christian  literature  was  tinged  with 
asceticism,  but  it  was  most  evident  among  the  heretical 
sects,  partly  as  a  protest  against  the  growing  worldli- 
ness  of  the  Church  and  the  desire  to  attain  a  higher 
morality,  and  partly  as  the  expression  of  dualistic 
notions. 

Monasticism  is  an  organized  manifestation  of  the 
ascetic  tendency  common  to  human  nature.  Three 
stages  may  be  distinguished,  (i)  Individual  asceti- 
cism ;  neither  organized  nor  cut  off  from  the  Church, 
(2)  Hermit  life  or  anchoretism;  represented  by  Paul 
of  Thebes,  d.  340  a.d.,  and  Anthony,  d.  356  a.d. 
The  life  of  Paul  of  Thebes  written  by  Jerome  is 
generally  regarded  as  a  religious  romance.  The  life 
of  Anthony  written  by  Athanasius,  though  subject  to 
the  same  criticism,  is  more  generally  regarded  as 
genuine  and  became  the  great  inspiring  tract  of 
Monasticism.  Hilarion  of  Palestine,  d.  371  a.d.,  was 
a  follower  of  Anthony,  and  his  life  was  written  by 


192     IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

Jerome.  Simeon  and  the  pillar-saints  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury are  examples  of  the  extreme  form ;  but  it  was  too 
impractical  and  eccentric  for  the  West. 

(3)  Coenobitism  or  Cloister  Life.  Pachomius  may 
be  called  the  founder  of  this  organized  form  of  asceti- 
cism, and  its  real  origin  traced  to  Egypt  in  the  first 
half  of  the  fourth  century.  At  Tabenna  on  the  Nile 
he  organized,  in  322,  the  first  monastic  congregation. 
He,  or  his  sister,  is  said  to  have  established  nunneries. 
When  he  died  in  348  he  left  nine  cloisters  with  three 
thousand  monks,  which  number  had  increased  to  fifty 
thousand  before  the  end  of  the  century.  A  more  de- 
veloped rule  was  drawn  up  by  Basil  the  Great  and  is 
still  in  force.  Favored  especially  by  Athanasius, 
Basil,  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  and  Chrysostom,  monas- 
ticism  spread  throughout  the  East.  Isidore  of  Pelu- 
sium,  d.  450,  was  one  of  the  noblest  representatives  of 
the  movement.  His  associate  Nilus,  d.  450,  of  even 
greater  learning,  established  the  monastery  on  Mount 
Sinai  in  which  so  many  valuable  manuscripts  have 
been  discovered.  Many  heretical  monastic  societies 
were  founded:  (i)  the  Eustathians,  asserting  that 
marriage  debarred  from  salvation.  (2)  The  Audians, 
severely  ascetic.  (3)  The  Euchites,  pantheistic  and 
antinomian. 

In  the  West  monasticism  originated  later  and  was 
more  practical  and  varied.  Athanasius  introduced  it 
during  his  banishment  to  Rome  in  340.  Ambrose 
established  a  monastery  at  Milan,  and  his  sister  was 
one   of    the   first   nuns.     Augustine   encouraged    it, 


MONASTICISM  193 


though  not  very  consistently  with  his  anti-Pelagian 
doctrines.  Jerome  and  Rufinus  were  among  the  most 
prominent  agents  of  its  spread.  Jerome's  wealthy 
and  distinguished  disciple  Paula  after  devout  pilgrim- 
ages in  the  East  settled  in  Bethlehem,  where  she 
founded  a  monastery  and  three  nunneries  in  which 
she  spent  twenty  years  as  abbess.  It  was  planted  in 
Gaul  by  Martin  of  Tours  in  360  and  developed  by  John 
Cassianus  a  little  later.  But  permanent  Western 
Monasticism  really  begins  with  Benedict  of  Nursia 
and  the  founding  of  Monte  Cassino  and  the  Bene- 
dictine order,  529  a.d. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Montalembert,  C.  F.  De. — Monks  of  the  West.  7  vols. 
Lond.,  1S96. 

Smith,  I.  G. — Christian  Monasticism.     Lend.,  1892. 

Allies,  T.  W. — Monastic  Life.     pp.  1-193.     Lond.,  1896. 

Wishart,  A.  W. — Monks  and  Monasteries.     Trenton,  1902. 

Kingsley,  Charles. — Hermits.     Lond.,  1885. 

Flick,  A.  C. — Mediaeval  Church,     pp.  198-228. 

Harnack,  A. — Monasticism  and  Confessions  of  St.  Augustine. 
Two  Essays.     Lond.,  1901. 

Lea,  H.  C. — Historical  Sketch  of  Sacerdotal  Celibacy.  I,  pp. 
21-108.    3rd  ed.     2  vols.     N.  Y.,  1907. 

Butler,  D.  C. — Early  Egyptian  Monasticism:  The  Lansiac 
History  of  Palladius.     Camb.  Texts  and  Studies.     Vol.  VL 

Woodhouse,  F.  C. — Monasticism,     Lond.,  1896. 

Allen,  A.  V.  G. — Christian  Institutions,     pp.  137-178. 

James,  Wm. — Varieties  of  Religious  Experience,     pp.  296  ff. 


194    IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

§13.    Christian  Worship  and  Holy  Days 

The  change  in  the  legal  and  social  position  of 
Christianity  produced  an  important  effect  upon  its 
worship.  The  majority  of  Christians  in  the  early 
Church  had  been  of  the  poorer  and  lower  classes; 
worshipping  in  private  houses  and  out-of-the-way 
places  in  secrecy  and  simplicity.  Now,  large  num- 
bers came  from  the  wealthy  aristocracy  with  the 
splendor  and  political  influence  of  the  court.  The 
Church  laid  aside  her  lowly  servant  garb  and  put  on 
a  brilliant  imperial  robe.  The  fine  arts  were  brought 
into  her  service,  and  the  settings  and  surroundings  of 
the  heathen  temple  were  transferred  to  the  Christian 
Church  and  dedicated  to  Christ,  to  the  Virgin  Mary 
and  to  the  saints  and  martyrs.  The  new  emphasis 
and  meaning  given  to  priesthood,  sacrifice  and  altar 
fixed  the  change.  Church  festivals  increased,  pil- 
grimages and  processions  multiplied.  The  worship 
became  dramatic  and  spectacular. 

Already  in  the  Nicene  age  we  find  almost  all  the 
essential  features  of  the  modern  Roman  and  Greek 
worship.  The  Christian  Sunday,  observed  by  the 
Apostles  and  established  by  the  legislation  of  Con- 
stantine,  was  regarded  as  a  new  institution,  and  not 
until  the  Reformation  as  a  continuation  of  the  Jewish 
Sabbath.  Constantine's  successors  extended  the  Sun- 
day legislation  to  other  holy  days.  Theatrical  enter- 
tainments and  amusements  were  forbidden  on  Sunday, 
but  the  prohibition  was  not  strictly  enforced.     Yearly 


CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP  AND  HOL  Y  DA  YS      195 

festivals  also  were  adopted.  Yet,  until  the  fourth 
century,  only  two  of  these  were  kept:  Easter  and 
Pentecost  (Whitsunday).  A  little  before  the  middle 
of  the  fourth  century  Christmas,  or  Epiphany  (two 
names  of  the  same  festival),  was  introduced;  but  not 
till  the  last  quarter  of  the  century  was  a  fuller  festal 
cycle  adopted.  The  first  reference  to  December  25 
as  the  festival  of  the  Nativity  is  in  336.  Epiphany, 
January  6,  goes  back  to  300  a.d.  in  some  parts  of  the 
East.  The  two  were  originally  one  festival, —  the 
Nativity ;  and  the  different  dates  were  due  to  different 
calculations.  Our  Lord's  life  was  reckoned  as  cover- 
ing an  exact  number  of  years ;  the  Annunciation  and 
Crucifixion  both  taking  place  at  the  Passover.  In 
Rome,  by  Hippolytus,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century  this  day  was  calculated  to  be  March  25 ; 
and  the  Nativity,  nine  months  afterwards,  would  be 
December  25.  In  the  East,  probably  in  the  same 
^ay,  April  6  was  regarded  as  the  day;  making  the 
Nativity  (January  6)  called  Epiphany,  celebrating 
also  the  Baptism  of  Jesus.  At  Antioch,  c.  375  a.d., 
Christmas  was  added  to  commemorate  the  Birth,  and 
Epiphany  retained  as  commemorating  the  Baptism; 
and  this  custom  gradually  spread.  In  the  West,  in  like 
manner,  the  Epiphany  was  introduced  into  the  Calen- 
dar at  about  the  same  time ;  thought  by  some  to  com- 
memorate the  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  by  others  the 
Baptism  and  by  others  the  Marriage  at  Cana.  Now, 
in  the  West,  it  commemorates  all  three.  The  cycle 
in  the  Apostolic  Constitution,  c.  375  a.d.,  embraces 


196     IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

Easter,  Ascension,  Pentecost,  Christmas,  Epiphany, 
Apostles'  Days,  St.  Stephen  and  All  Martyrs.  The 
origin  of  many  a  festival  is  to  be  found  in  some 
local  celebration.  The  earliest  evidence  of  the  cele- 
bration of  the  Presentation  and  of  Palm  Sunday  is  in 
385 ;  probably  connected  especially  with  Jerusalem. 
Similarly,  Holy  Cross  Day,  or  the  Exaltation  of  the 
Cross,  dates  from  September  14,  335  a.d. ,  the  dedica- 
tion of  churches  built  by  Constantine  in  Jerusalem, 
to  commemorate  Calvary  and  the  discovery  of  the  true 
Cross  by  his  mother  Helena.  Another  day  originated 
in  the  Gallican  Church,  and  was  called  the  Invention 
or  Finding  of  the  Cross,  May  3. 

At  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  we  find  a  series  of 
Saints'  Days  after  Christmas:  St.  Stephen,  December 
26;  St.  James  and  St.  John,  27;  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul,  28.  At  Rome,  June  29  was  observed  for  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul  in  the  fourth  century,  and  Holy 
Innocents  celebrated  on  December  28. 

The  regular  weekly  fasts  on  Wednesdays  and  Fri- 
days (Days  of  Stations),  did  not  become  universal 
until  the  fourth  century;  the  fast  being  kept  until 
midday,  or  even  3  p.m.  Saturday  was  sometimes  ob- 
served as  a  fast  in  the  West,  but  in  the  East  only  by 
heretics.  A  special  pre-Easter  fast  is  mentioned  by 
Irenaeus  at  the  end  of  the  second  century,  lasting  one 
or  two  days.  In  the  third  century  already  this  had 
extended  to  a  week  in  some  places.  The  Montanists 
kept  two  weeks.  The  Quadragesima  or  Forty  days 
before  Easter  are  mentioned  early  in  the  fourth  cen- 


CHRIST! A  N  WORSHIP  A  ND  HOL  Y  DA  YS      1 97 

tury  as  a  solemn  season  of  prayer  and  service  and 
preparation  for  baptism,  but  not  as  a  fast;  though  by 
the  middle  of  the  century  the  practice  of  fasting  is 
connected  with  them,  as  is  seen  in  the  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions. These  forty  days  extended  over  six  weeks ; 
as  Sundays,  and  sometimes  Saturdays,  were  not 
counted,  and  thus  the  forty  days  were  not  continuous. 
In  Rome  a  three  weeks'  fast  was  observed,  which 
Duchesne  thinks  comprised  the  first,  fourth  and  sixth 
weeks  in  the  Lenten  period.  Gregory  the  Great  fixed 
Ash-Wednesday  as  the  beginning  of  Lent. 

The  Paschal  controversy  of  the  third  century  was 
continued  in  the  fourth,  and  ended  with  the  victory 
of  the  Roman  and  Alexandrian  practice  of  keeping 
Easter  not  on  a  fixed  day  of  the  month  like  Christ- 
mas, but  always  on  a  Sunday, —  the  first  after  the  full 
moon  of  the  Spring  Equinox.  The  Council  of  Aries 
decreed  that  the  same  day  should  be  observed  every- 
where, to  be  determined  by  the  Bishop  of  Rome. 
This  order  was  not  observed ;  and  the  settlement  of  the 
question  was  the  second  main  object  of  the  Council 
of  Nicaea.  It  was  there  decided  that  Easter  should 
be  observed  on  Sunday,  but  always  after  the  four- 
teenth of  Nisan  (the  Jewish  Passover);  thus  deciding 
against  the  Quartodecimans  who  believed  in  cele- 
brating it  on  the  fourteenth.  But  the  exact  Sunday 
for  observing  Easter  varied  until  fixed  by  Dionysius 
Exiguus  the  author  of  our  Christian  Calendar.  The 
Galilean  and  British  Christians  still  continued  the 
old  reckoning,    and  thus  brought  about  the  conflict 


198     IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

settled  by  the  Council  of  Whitby,  664  a.d.  Next  in 
importance  are  the  festivals  in  connection  with  the 
Virgin  Mary.  The  veneration  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
was  originally  only  a  reflection  of  the  worship  of 
Christ,  and  her  feasts  were  designed  to  contribute  to 
His  glorification ;  but  this  gradually  changed,  until  the 
"mother  of  the  Lord,"  became  the  "mother  of  God." 
The  application  of  the  term  'Theotokos'  to  the  Virgin 
Mary  and  its  triumphant  recognition  in  the  Nestorian 
controversy  carried  the  veneration  of  Mary  to  some- 
thing so  near  worship  that  it  is  difficult,  sometimes 
impossible,  to  distinguish  it  in  practice.  The  first 
festival  of  the  Virgin  was  the  Annunciation,  really 
the  festival  of  the  Incarnation ;  reckoned  as  occurring 
on  the  same  day  of  the  month  as  the  Passover,  and 
therefore,  March  25.  The  festival  of  the  Presenta- 
tion of  Christ  in  the  Temple  also  shows  the  Christ  as 
well  as  Virgin  aspect  of  the  early  festivals.  Forty 
days  after  the  birth  of  Jesus,  it  fell  therefore  on 
February  2,  and  was  celebrated  in  Jerusalem  in  the 
fourth  century.  Rome  did  not  celebrate  any  festival 
of  the  Virgin  before  the  seventh  century ;  when  the 
festivals  of  the  Assumption,  Nativity,  and  later  of 
the  Presentation,  Visitation  and  Immaculate  Con- 
ception were  introduced. 

The  term  Saints  (the  title  given  generally  by 
Apostles  to  all  Christian  believers)  gradually  came  to 
be  restricted  to  the  departed  heroes  of  the  Church, 
especially  to  the  martyrs  of  the  first  three  centuries, 
including  the  Apostles   and  Evangelists    and   their 


CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP  AND  HOL  Y DA  YS      199 

associates.  The  popular  voice  commonly  decided  the 
matter;  some  saints  being  venerated  only  in  the  region 
where  they  lived  and  died,  others  receiving  a  national 
or  even  universal  homage.  The  veneration  of  the 
saints  increased  with  the  decrease  of  martyrdom  and 
with  the  remoteness  of  their  time.  The  recently  dis- 
covered Church  Orders,  and  especially  the  Pilgrim- 
age of  Silvia,  dated  385  a.d.,  have  thrown  much  new 
light  on  this  subject.  The  Christian  Calendar  may 
be  said  to  date  from  the  fourth  century.  Two  of 
Rome  are  extant:  one,  of  354  a.d.,  containing  for  the 
first  time  the  Christian  week  beginning  with  Sunday; 
the  other,  448  a.d.,  containing  Christian  feast  days 
and  holidays,  four  of  Christ  and  six  martyrs'  days. 
Other  calendars  of  local  use  have  been  discovered,  and 
lists  of  saints'  days  belonging  to  individual  churches. 
Such  tables  are  the  groundwork  of  the  Calendar  and  the 
martyrologies.  At  first  each  community  or  province 
had  its  own  list.  These  local  registers  were  called  dip- 
tychs  (two  leaves) ;  and  commonly  contained,  beside 
the  names  of  the  martyrs,  names  of  early  bishops  and 
still  living  benefactors  who  were  to  be  named  by  the 
priest  in  the  prayer  before  the  consecration  in  the  Eu- 
charist. The  great  influence  of  Rome  gave  to  the 
Roman  festival  list  and  calendar  the  chief  currency  in 
the  West.  The  Eastern  calendar  is  richer  in  saints 
from  the  Old  Testament  than  is  the  Western. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Maclean,  A.  J. — Recent  Discoveries,    pp.  38-72. 
Wordsworth,  John. — Ministry  of  Grace.     Chaps.  VI  to  VIII. 


200     IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

§14.    Architecture 

"When  the  Church  had  rest,  Christian  temples  rose 
loftier  and  grander  than  those  which  had  been  de- 
stroyed."— Eusebius,  H.  E.,  x.  2,  3.  The  basilica  con- 
tinued to  be  the  general  type,  and  the  Gothic  churches 
of  the  West  were  derived  from  this  form.  Later, 
side  naves  were  added ;  thus  giving  the  church  the 
form  of  the  cross.  In  the  East  the  dome  was  added 
and  the  style  called  the  Byzantine.  A  full  description 
of  a  church  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  gave 
three  entrances  into  the  courtyard ;  for  the  church  or 
group  of  church  buildings  seems  to  have  been  walled 
in.  The  church  extended  east  and  west,  as  was  usual 
but  not  universal,  with  the  bishop's  throne  at  the 
east.  On  the  right  and  left  were  the  places  of  the 
presbyters,  the  older  ones  on  the  right  and  the  younger 
on  the  left.  This  part  was  raised  three  steps;  and 
the  altar  was  in  front  of  the  bishop's  throne,  in  the 
center  of  the  sanctuary.  The  bishop  celebrated  stand- 
ing at  the  middle  of  the  altar  and  facing  east;  the 
presbyters  just  back  of  him  on  either  side,  the  wid- 
ows behind  the  presbyters  on  the  left,  the  deacons 
behind  the  presbyters  on  the  right,  and  behind  the 
deacons  the  readers,  subdeacons  and  deaconesses. 
The  sanctuary  had  a  veil  or  curtain  of  pure  linen. 
Veils  were  common  after  the  fourth  century,  and  are 
still  universal  in  the  East.  They  were  not  general  in 
the  West,  and  probably  not  used  in  the  fifth  century. 
In   the   nave,  the  men   and   women  were  separated ; 


ARCHITECTURE  201 

the  catechumens  had  a  special  chamber.     The  furni- 
ture of  the  church  consisted  of  the  altar,  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  sanctuary,  with  the  chairs  for  the  bishop 
and  presbyters  in  a  row  against  the  semi-circular  wall 
of  the  apse  behind  it.     The  early  altar  was  of  wood, 
at  first  a  table,  as  it  was  called,  later,  a  chest,  with  a 
lid ;  after  the  fifth  century  usually  of  stone  or  marble 
often  overlaid  with  gold  or  silver.    In  front  of  this 
was  the  lectern  or  "place  of  the  lection,"  outside  of 
the  sanctuary,  probably  on  a  raised  platform  specially 
provided,  sometimes  called  the  ambo  or  pulpit.     The 
sermon  was  delivered  from  the  bishop's  chair  (ex  ca- 
thedra), or  from  this  reading  desk,  or  from  the  railings 
of  the  choir  (cancelli).     The  doors  of  the  nave  were 
guarded  by  the  deacons  and  no  one  allowed  to  enter 
after  the  beginning  of  the  service,  until  the  first  hymn. 
Then  they  were  brought  in  by  the  deacons  and  a  spe- 
cial petition  offered  for  them  in  the  Litany.     There 
were  other  buildings   in   the  enclosure:   a  deacon's 
chamber,    with   a   cloister,  "a  place  of  commemora- 
tion,"   opening   off   from  the   sanctuary  like  a  side 
chapel;  a  baptistry  at  the  west  end  of  the  church, 
usually  octagonal  or  circular,  but  sometimes  oblong; 
it   had   a    veil   and    one    entrance    and    three    exits 
(one  God  in  three  Persons).     The  font  was  a  large 
tank   arranged  so  that  the  water  should  be   flowing 
into   and   out    of   it;  a   treasury;    a   bishop's   house 
and  sometimes  houses  for  other  clergy,  widows  and 
deaconesses;  also  a  guest  house,  presided  over  by  the 
chief  deacon  (not  archdeacon). 
16 


202     IMPERIA L  CHURCH  A ND  NICENE  FA  ITH 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Maclean,  A.  J. — Recent  Discoveries,     pp.  73-86. 
Bennett,  C.  W. — Christian  Archaeology.     N.  Y.,  1881. 
Martin. — Ecclesiastical  Architecture. 

Brown,  G.  Baldwin. — From   Schola   to  Cathedral.      Edinb., 
1886. 
Smith,  T.  Roger. — Early  Christian  Architecture. 

§15.    Ecclesiastical  Law  and  Episcopal  Courts 

The  chief  sources  of  the  law  of  the  Church  were 
naturally  the  canons  of  the  General  Councils ;  to  which 
were  added  the  decrees  of  the  most  important  provin- 
cial synods,  and  the  orders  and  letters  of  eminent 
bishops,  especially  the  patriarchs,  and  the  edicts  of 
the  emperors.  From  these  sources  arose  various 
collections  of  ecclesiastical  laws  early  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury,—  in  the  East,  North  Africa,  Italy,  Gaul  and 
Spain, — which,  however,  had  only  provincial  authority 
and  were  not  in  perfect  agreement.  Gradually  two 
collections  became  preeminent,  one  in  the  East,  and 
the  other  in  the  West.  Dionysius  Exiguus,  c.  500 
A.D. ,  who  introduced  the  Christian  Calendar  and 
established  the  birth  of  Christ  as  "the  turning  point 
of  the  Ages"  (b.c.  and  a.d.),  translated  a  collection 
of  canons  from  Greek  into  Latin.  This  was  the  basis 
and  beginning  of  the  authoritative  ecclesiastical  law 
of  the  West.  About  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century 
John  Scholasticus,  later  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
published  a  collection  of  canons  in  Greek,  which  had 
a  similar  position  in  the  East.  These  books  of  law 
served    to    complete    and    confirm    the   hierarchical 


ECCLESIASTICAL  LAW;  EPISCOPAL  COURTS  203 

organization,  to  regulate  the  life  of  the  clergy,  and  to 
promote  order  and  discipline.  The  union  of  Church 
and  State  increased  the  stringency  of  discipline  and 
led  to  a  penal  code  for  spiritual  offences.  The  State 
lent  the  authority  of  law  and  the  power  of  civil  penal- 
ties to  the  ecclesiastical  administration.  Yet,  in  a 
way,  discipline  was  weakened.  Firm  against  heretics 
and  schismatics,  it  became  more  lax  toward  practical 
errors.  By  the  jus  circa  sacra  the  emperor  claimed 
the  supreme  direction  of  all  religious  matters  and  the 
right  of  determining  legally  all  the  relations  between 
Church  and  State,  keeping  the  peace  and  unity  of  the 
Church,  guarding  orthodoxy,  looking  after  the  in- 
terests of  the  Church  and  clergy,  and  maintaining  the 
authority  of  ecclesiastical  law.  This  may  be  seen  in  the 
Theodosian  Code,  438  a.  d.,  and  in  the  Code  of  Justin- 
ian, 537  A.D.  In  matters  of  faith  and  spiritual  concern 
the  emperor  summoned  ecumenical  synods  or  gen- 
eral councils,  the  decrees  of  which  had  legal  valid- 
ity throughout  the  Empire  when  ratified  by  him. 
Direct  interference  in  such  matters,  by  imperial 
edict,  is  not  observed  until  the  time  of  the  later 
emperors,  especially  Justinian.  Another  source  of 
Church  law  was  the  penitential  system,  from  which 
arose  a  traditional  or  common  law,  collections  of 
which  are  found  in  the  Teaching  of  the  Twelve, 
Ordinances  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions, Canons  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  and  in  other 
Church  orders. 
One  of  the  most  impressive  evidences  of  the  union 


204     IMPERIAL  CHURCH  AND  NICENE  FAITH 

of  the  Empire  and  the  Church  in  the  fourth  century 
was  the  Episcopal  Court.  From  the  beginning,  the 
settlements  of  disputes  between  Christians  had  been 
made  among  the  Christians  themselves,  and  a  juris- 
diction of  the  congregation  over  other  than  the  moral 
actions  of  its  members  had  developed.  The  Apostolic 
Constitutions  show  a  well-developed  administration 
of  justice  in  the  third  and  fourth  centuries.  Minor 
suits  and  difficulties  were  heard  by  the  deacons,  more 
serious  ones  by  the  bishop,  each  Monday,  assisted 
by  the  deacons  and  presbyters.  The  rules  were  not 
those  of  common  law,  but  were  suggested  by  the  spirit- 
ual conceptions  of  Christianity.  The  rulers  of  the 
world  were  not  to  pass  judgment  on  the  Christians; 
if  possible  the  contending  parties  should  be  reconciled 
without  the  judgment  of  the  bishop,  but  his  sen- 
tence, once  rendered,  must  be  accepted  as  final  on  pain 
of  excommunication.  By  two  edicts  of  Constantine 
the  episcopal  arbitration  was  transformed  into  a 
legal  mode  of  procedure,  and  the  episcopal  courts 
were  given  a  place  in  the  judicial  system  of  the  Empire. 
The  bishop,  therefore,  held  a  place  similar  to  that  of 
the  judge  of  the  public  law  courts.  Moreover,  the  con- 
ception of  his  office  as  arbitrator  was  that  of  an  author- 
ity transcending  the  regular  civil  courts,  for  the  jus- 
tice he  administered  arose  from  his  individual  concep- 
tion of  right  and  wrong,  and  as  not  even  minors  could 
appeal  from  his  decisions,  he  enjoyed  a  wider  range  of 
action  than  the  civil  judges ;  indeed,  in  this  respect,  his 
jurisdiction  was  equal  to  that  of  the  pretorian  prefect. 


ECCLESIASTICAL  LA  IV;  EPISCOPAL  COURTS    205 

This  recognition  of  the  episcopal  courts  as  a  source 
of  secular  justice  is  unique  in  the  history  of  Roman 
jurisprudence.  No  civil  court  was  ever  given  such 
unlimited  authority.  The  emperors  recognized  the 
right  of  plaintiffs  to  take  their  civil  cases  before  the 
bishops.  Recourse  to  ecclesiastical  tribunal  was  not 
limited  to  cases  between  Christians,  and  could  be  had 
at  any  time,  even  if  a  secular  judge  had  commenced  to 
give  sentence.  It  was  not  a  court  of  appeal  but  a 
special  court.  Inspiring  more  confidence  and  with 
easier  access,  it  was  more  simple,  more  honest,  much 
speedier  and  less  costly.  It  furnishes  an  honorable 
testimony  to  the  Christian  Church. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Boyd,  W.  K. — Ecclesiastical  Edicts,    pp.  87-102, 

Fulton,  J. — Index  Canonum.     N.  Y.,  1892. 

Bright,  Wnn. — Notes  on  the  Canons  of  the  first  four  General 
Councils.     N.  Y.,  1892. 

Howard,  G.  B. —  Canons  of  the  Primitive  Church.  Lond., 
1896. 


B.  CHAPTER  II. 

THE  FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE 

FAITH  AND  THE  DISINTEGRATION 

OF  THE  IMPERIAL  CHURCH 

395    A.D.   TO    476    A.D. 

§1.  The  End  of  Paganism 

UNDER  Constantine  the  Church  and  the  Empire 
were  allied ;  under  Theodosius  they  were  incor- 
porated together.  Orthodoxy  became  the  badge  of  a 
Roman  citizen;  the  Catholic  Faith  the  legal  religion 
of  the  Romans.  The  State  was  responsible  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  true  Faith  among  its  subjects.  In 
380  Theodosius  ordered  all  nations  to  receive  the  Faith 
taught  to  the  Romans  by  St.  Peter  and  still  held  by 
Damasus  of  Rome  and  Peter  of  Alexandria.  With 
the  division  of  the  Empire  at  the  death  of  Theo- 
dosius, we  note  the  tendency  to  the  division  of  the 
Church,  each  part  having  its  special  problems  and 
solutions. 

(i)  In  the  East.  The  larger  life  and  the  greater 
numbers  of  the  Church  were  still  in  the  East.  Arca- 
dius,  the  son  of  Theodosius,  395  to  408,  his  son 
Theodosius  II,  408  to  450,  Pulcheria  and  Marcian, 
450  to  457,  Leo  I,  457  to  474,  and  Zeno,  474  to  491, 
form  the  series  of  emperors  who  weakly  continued 
the  line  of  Theodosius  in  the  East.  The  laws  of 
Gratian   and   of  Theodosius   were  repeated  and  ex- 


THE  END  OF  PAGANISM  207 

tended  against  apostasy  and  excluding  pagans  from 
civil  and  military  offices,  in  416.  Renewing,  in  423, 
a  former  edict  against  the  pagans,  it  is  said:  "We 
believe  that  they  are  no  more."  The  last  edict  of 
the  Theodosian  code  forbids  sacrifices  on  penalty  of 
death,  and  orders  the  destruction  of  temples,  if  any 
exist.  The  brutal  murder  of  Hypatia,  the  beautiful  and 
learned  teacher  of  Neo-Platonic  philosophy  in  Alexan- 
dria, by  fanatical  monks  (probably  instigated  by 
Bishop  Cyril  himself)  in  415,  was  one  of  the  last 
terrible  incidents  of  the  struggle,  and  brought  down 
the  censure  of  all  the  rest  of  the  Christian  Church. 
The  practical  downfall  of  paganism  may  be  said  to 
date  from  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century.  It  was 
now  almost  wholly  confined  to  remote  rural  districts, 
the  very  name  paganism  signifying  the  religion  of  the 
peasants  or  country-folk.  The  last  decisive  blow  in 
the  East  was  struck  by  Justinian  who  ordered  all  his 
subjects  to  be  baptized,  and  in  529  abolished  the 
philosophical  school  of  Athens  and  exiled  the  seven 
remaining  philosophers,  "the  shades  of  the  seven 
sages  of  Greece."  They  fled  into  Persia,  where  they 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  later  literary  activity  of 
Islam  under  the  rule  of  the  Abassidae  at  Bagdad  in 
the  eighth  century. 

(2)  In  the  West.  Honorius,  395  to  423,  Valentinian 
III,  423  to  450,  and  (with  the  exception  of  Majorian, 
457  to  461)  their  almost  unknown  successors  down  to 
Romulus  Augustulus  in  476,  the  creatures  of  Ricimer 
and   Orestes,    maintained   a   similar  policy,    though 


208    FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

under  very  different  conditions.  Stilicho,  as  regent 
during  the  minority  of  Honorius,  forbade  the  de- 
struction of  temples  and  statues  and  protected  the 
ancient  games.  But  he  alienated  the  Christians  by 
his  indifference,  by  the  introduction  of  pagans  into 
the  imperial  service,  and  by  the  reform  of  the  epis- 
copal courts.  After  the  murder  of  Stilicho,  the 
ecclesiastical  party  was  again  in  the  ascendant ;  tem- 
ples and  their  incomes  were  confiscated,  while  bishops 
were  entrusted  with  the  execution  of  religious  law. 
The  hopes  of  the  pagan  party  revived  when  Alaric 
placed  Attalus  on  the  throne.  But  Alaric  soon  threw 
him  aside;  and  with  his  fall  the  last  hopes  of  pagan- 
ism as  a  political  force  in  Italy  vanished.  Valentin- 
ian  III  joined  with  Theodosius  II  in  an  edict  order- 
ing the  burning  of  all  writings  against  Christianity. 
It  was  during  this  period  that  temples  and  statues  of 
the  deities,  the  most  beautiful  remains  of  ancient  art, 
were  ruthlessly  destroyed.  Note  the  destruction  of 
the  Serapeum  in  Alexandria  and  the  activity  of 
Martin  of  Tours  in  Gaul.  In  the  West,  however, 
paganism  maintained  itself  until  the  middle  of  the 
sixth  century,  and  even  later  among  many  of  the 
cultivated  and  old  aristocratic  families  in  Rome,  in 
some  remote  places,  and  in  popular  heathen  customs 
and  traditions.  But  Roman  paganism  in  the  West 
fell  with  the  Roman  Empire  and  was  buried  in  its 
ruins.  The  German  barbarians  destroyed  idolatry 
with  the  Empire  and  really  promoted  the  victory  of 
Christianity;  for  their  leaders  generally  spared  the 


THE  ECCLESIASTICAL  ORGANISM  209 

churches  but  spoiled  the  temples.  A  severer  attitude 
was  manifested  by  the  Empire  toward  the  Jews. 
Honorius  and  Theodosius  the  Younger  excluded 
them  from  military  and  all  other  public  services  ex- 
cept municipal  offices,  while  a  special  law  gave  tem- 
poral officials  the  right  to  inspect  and  increase  the 
taxes  paid  into  the  public  treasury  by  the  Jewish 
communities.  Constantine  and  his  sons  had  pro- 
hibited the  Jews  from  punishing  those  leaving  their 
faith,  from  circumcising  their  slaves,  and  from  marry- 
ing Christian  women,  and  had  forbidden  conversions 
to  Judaism.  There  was  no  additional  legislation  from 
Julian  to  Theodosius. 

§2.  The  Ecclesiastical  Organism 

During  this  period  the  patriarchal  system  was 
strengthened  and  confirmed,  while  the  influence  of 
the  hierarchical  constitution  of  the  Empire  increased 
and  became  more  evident. 

The  decree  of  the  Second  General  Council  making 
Constantinople  the  fourth  patriarchate  was  not  pleas- 
ing to  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  as  it  created  a  new  rival  to 
his  growing  power;  nor  to  the  Bishop  of  Alexandria, 
who  had  previously  held  second  place  and  was  now  rele- 
gated to  the  third.  The  new  patriarch  began  to  ex- 
tend his  powers  over  the  neighboring  metropolitans 
and  the  other  eastern  patriarchs,  owing  largely  to  the 
fact  that  it  was  the  custom  for  the  eastern  bishops  to 
reside  at  Constantinople  in  order  to  be  near  the  em- 
peror who  frequently  referred  their  cases  to  the  Bishop 


210  FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

of  Constantinople  and  his  council.  The  patriarch  thus 
gained  the  primacy  of  the  East  and  gradually  extended 
his  recognized  authority  over  twenty-eight  prov- 
inces. In  421  Theodosius  II  issued  an  edict  establish- 
ing his  authority  to  ordain  bishops  in  all  the  neighbor- 
ing dioceses.  This  was  formally  sanctioned  by  the 
Fourth  General  Council  at  Chalcedon,  451  a.d.,  in  the 
twenty-eighth  canon,  confirming  the  third  canon  of 
Constantinople.  This  aroused  the  jealousy  of  the 
Bishop  of  Rome,  especially  as  the  canon  of  Chalcedon 
was  silent  in  regard  to  the  primacy  of  St.  Peter,  and 
appeared  to  base  the  preeminence  of  both  Rome  and 
Constantinople  upon  purely  political  considerations. 
From  this  point  begins  the  final  separation  of  the 
East  from  the  West,  which  belongs  to  the  succeeding 
history.  The  Fourth  Council  also  assigned  to  the 
Bishop  of  Jerusalem  the  three  provinces  of  Palestine 
and  confirmed  him  in  his  patriarchal  rank,  which  had 
been  vaguely  recognized  by  the  Council  of  Nicaea  only 
as  a  position  of  honor.  Thus  the  Catholic  Church  of 
the  fourth  and  fifth  century  was  organized  with  in- 
creasing definiteness  under  five  co-ordinate  and  in- 
dependent patriarchs,  four  in  the  East  and  one  in  the 
West,  under  whom  are  most  of  the  metropolitans,  a 
few,  like  Milan  and  some  others,  maintaining  an  orig- 
inal independence,  while  under  the  metropolitans 
were  bishops  who  controlled  the  presbyters  and  dea- 
cons, and  administered  the  affairs  of  their  episcopal 
parishes.  Synods  were  held  in  the  metropolitan  and 
patriarchal  districts,  while  the  general  councils  ut- 


ROMAN  PRIMACY;  ORIGINS  OF  THE  PAPACY    211 

tered  the  voice  and  proclaimed  the  decisions  of  the  uni- 
versal Church.  But  the  analogy  of  the  political  consti- 
tution and  the  tendency  toward  a  visible,  tangible 
representation  of  the  unity  of  the  Church,  like  that  of 
the  Empire,  impelled  from  oligarchy  to  monarchy, 
especially  in  the  West,  where  already  there  was  only 
one  patriarchate.  The  division  of  the  Empire  after 
the  death  of  Theodosius  and  the  other  circumstances 
of  the  time  only  increased  this  tendency,  but  at  the 
same  time  implied  a  double  head  to  the  hierarchy,  one 
representing  the  Western  or  Latin  Church,  and  the 
other  the  Eastern  or  Greek  Church. 

§3.  The  Roman  Primacy  and  the  Origins  of 
THE  Papacy 

The  establishment  of  the  basis  of  the  papal  power 
belongs  essentially  to  this  period.  The  germs  of 
authority,  the  lines  of  influence,  the  elements  of 
authority  appearing  in  the  preceding  period  were 
drawn  together,  confirmed,  consolidated  and  even 
extended  and  still  further  developed  in  this  period; 
mainly  by  two  great  Popes,  Innocent  and  Leo.  In 
consequence  of  the  division  of  the  Empire,  the  claims 
of  the  Roman  patriarchate  to  ecclesiastical  supremacy 
over  the  whole  of  the  West  were  not  only  confirmed 
but  considerably  extended.  These  claims  were  ad- 
vanced with  strong  emphasis  and  corresponding  suc- 
cess by  Innocent  I,  402  to  417  a.d.  On  his  elevation 
to  the  episcopate  he  authoritatively  transferred  to  the 
Metropolitan  of  Thessalonica,  as  his  representative, 


212   FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

the  oversight  of  all  the  Illyrian  provinces,  and  to  his 
successor,  in  412,  he  sent  a  formal  document  creating 
him  "vicar  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome."  He  applied  to 
the  Roman  See  the  Sardican  canon  of  343,  giving  right 
of  appeal  in  certain  cases  to  Julius;  and  in  a  decretal 
to  a  Galilean  bishop  he  enlarged  the  right  of  appeal  of 
condemned  bishops  into  an  obligation  to  submit  all 
major  cases  to  the  decision  of  the  Roman  See.  From 
Africa  a  Carthaginian  synod  in  404  sent  messengers 
to  Rome  to  secure  its  intercession  with  the  emperor 
against  the  Donatists;  from  the  East,  Theophilus  of 
Alexandria  and  Chrysostom  of  Constantinople  solic- 
ited the  influence  of  Rome  in  the  Origenist  contro- 
versy. Alexandria  of  Antioch  boasts  of  asking  the 
advice  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome  on  constitutional  and 
disciplinary  matters.  Appeals  from  Palestine  and 
Africa  came  in  415  and  416  during  the  Pelagian  con- 
troversy; and  when  the  decision  was  given  against  the 
Pelagians  Augustine  made  the  well-known  declara- 
tion, "Rome  has  spoken;  the  case  is  ended."  But 
when  Zosimus,  Innocent's  successor,  took  the  side  of 
Pelagius  he  was  forced  to  retract;  and,  in  the  case  of 
Apiarius,  the  Council  of  Carthage  at  which  Augus- 
tine was  present,  418  a.d.,  forbade  any  appeal  to 
transmarine  tribunals,  and  Rome's  quoting  of  the 
Sardican  canon  as  Nicene  was  strenuously  resisted. 
Celestine  I,  422  to  432  a.d.,  again  protected  Apiarius, 
but  another  Carthaginian  synod  protested  and  denied 
again  any  Nicene  authority  for  the  Sardican  canon. 
In   the   Nestorian  controversy,  both  Nestorius  and 


ROMAN  PRIMACY;  ORIGINS  OF  THE  PAPACY   213 

Cyril  of  Alexandria  appealed  to  Rome,  where  the 
flatteries  of  Cyril  won  great  favor;  and  Celestine 
commanded  Nestorius,  under  threat  of  deposition  and 
excommunication,  to  present  within  ten  days  to  a 
Roman  synod  a  written  retraction.  To  his  legates  at 
the  Council  of  Ephesus,  431  a.d.,  he  gave  instructions 
to  guard  the  authority  of  the  Apostolic  See  and  to  pass 
judgment  on  their  opinions,  but  not  to  submit  to  any 
discussion.  The  council  decided  as  Celestine  willed; 
the  Alexandrian  patriarch  recognized  Rome  as  the 
highest  court  of  appeal,  and  a  Roman-trained  adherent 
of  Celestine  was  raised  to  the  patriarchate  of  Con- 
stantinople in  place  of  the  deposed  Nestorius. 

Celestine's  successor,  Sixtus  III,  432  to  440,  boasted 
of  his  superiority  to  the  council;  and  in  honor  of  his 
victory  dedicated  the  church  now  called  St.  Maria 
Maggiore.  Leo  the  Great,  440  to  461,  the  greatest 
Roman  Bishop  up  to  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great, 
was  the  most  successful  and  the  worthiest  vindicator 
of  Roman  authority  in  the  East  as  well  as  in  the  West, 
and  may  fairly  be  regarded  as  the  real  founder  of  the 
Roman  papacy  as  a  universal  episcopate  with  the  full 
sanction  of  the  civil  power.  In  him  the  idea  of  the 
papacy  became  flesh  and  blood.  He  adopted  the 
interpretation  of  Matt,  xvi :  18  as  divine  author- 
ity for  a  universal  primacy,  and  proceeded  to  real- 
ize it  in  practice,  basing  his  claims  upon  it,  as 
may  be  seen  in  many  of  his  sermons.  He  forced 
into  flight  Hilary,  Archbishop  of  Aries,  who  tried 
to  maintain  a  sort  of  primacy   in    Gaul;   he  estab- 


214  FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

lished  the  privilege  for  African  bishops  to  appeal 
to  Rome;  he  obtained,  in  445,  from  Valentinian 
III,  emperor  of  the  West,  an  edict  recognizing  the 
primacy  of  the  Apostolic  See,  declaring  that  "no 
one  may  attempt  anything  against  its  authority;  and 
whatever  shall  be  sanctioned  by  that  authority  shall 
be  law  and  all."  But  his  greatest  triumph  was  se- 
cured at  the  Fourth  General  Council  at  Chalcedon,  451 
A.D.,  the  first  general  council  at  which  a  Roman  legate 
presided.  Here  Leo's  letter  to  Flavian  was  approved 
by  the  council  and  made  the  basis  of  its  doctrinal  de- 
cision against  Nestorius  and  the  Monophysites.  Hard- 
ly less  triumphant  was  his  stand  against  Attila  and  the 
Huns  in  the  attack  upon  Rome  in  452;  and  though 
less  successful  in  withstanding  the  Arian  Gaiseric 
and  his  Vandals  in  455,  he  showed  clearly  his  ability 
and  authority  in  restoring  order  and  quiet  after  the 
fourteen  days  of  murder  and  pillage.  Leo  was  every 
inch  a  Pope,  and  both  in  theory  and  in  practice  he 
established  and  maintained  the  supremacy  of  the 
Roman  See,  the  true  incarnation  of  ancient  Rome. 
When  the  acts  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  were  sent 
to  Leo  for  confirmation,  he  expressly  repudiated  the 
twenty-eighth  canon  increasing  the  dignity  and  im- 
portance of  the  See  of  Constantinople,  and  the  em- 
peror annulled  it  in  454  and  Anatolius,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  consented  to  its  erasure,  but  his  suc- 
cessors maintained  its  validity  and  the  canon  went 
into  effect.  In  this  connection,  the  peculiar  position 
of  Milan  toward  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  is  sig- 


ROMAN  PRIMACY;  ORIGINS  OF  THE  PAPACY    215 

nificant,  appearing  first  in  the  time  of  Ambrose  (347 
to  397).  Indeed,  there  came  into  existence  a  two- 
fold hegemony  in  the  Western  Church, —  Rome  and 
Milan.  Even  before  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century, 
Milan  was  the  great  centre  of  ecclesiastical  interre- 
lations in  the  West.  Spain,  Gaul  and  Africa  all 
appealed  to  Milan,  partly  because  it  was  an  official  im- 
perial residence,  although  the  Church  was  not  founded 
there  before  the  end  of  the  second  century.  When 
Treves  ceased  to  be  an  imperial  residence  at  the  death 
of  Maximus,  in  388,  Milan  became  the  capital  of  the 
Western  Empire,  and  its  ecclesiastical  position  was 
established  on  the  same  lines  as  Constantinople. 
There,  rather  than  at  Rome,  the  two  Churches  of  the 
East  and  West  found  a  point  of  contact.  The  Bishop 
of  Rome  therefore  helped  to  found  Aquileia  and 
Ravenna  at  the  expense  of  Milan.  Under  Zosimus 
a  great  blow  was  struck  at  Milan  by  the  foundation  of 
the  Vicariate  of  Aries.  Its  final  submission  to  Rome 
came  in  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  the  Great. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Hussey,  R. — The  Rise  of  the  Papal  Power,  pp.  xxix-xliii ; 
1-150.     Lond.,  1863. 

Lea,  H.  C. — Studies  in  Church  History,    pp.  1 12-140. 

Fhck,  A.  C— Rise  of  the  Medizeval  Church,     pp.  148-185. 

Bright,  Wm. — The  Roman  See  in  the  Early  Church,  pp. 
148-185. 

Wells,  C.  L. — Age  of  Charlemagne,    pp.  14-24. 

Littledale,  R.  F. — The  Petrine  Claims. 

Gore,  Charles. — Leo  the  Great.     Lond.,  1878. 

Rivington,  Luke. — The  Roman  Primacy  (430-451).  Lond.,  1899. 

Allies,  T.  W. — The  Throne  of  the  Fisherman.     Lond.,  1887. 

Mann,  H.  K. — Lives  of  the  Popes  in  the  Early  Middle  Ages. 
Lond.,  1906. 


216    FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

§4.  The  Invasion  of  the  Germans 

The  great  wandering  of  the  German  peoples  and 
their  settlement  within  the  boundaries  of  the  Empire 
had  a  tremendous  influence  on  the  history  of  Chris- 
tianity and  the  organization  of  the  Christian  Church. 
Gradually  the  German  tribes  had  been  moving  down 
from  the  far  North,  forming  great  confederations  as 
they  drew  nearer  to  the  boundary  of  the  Empire.  In 
the  Northwest  were  the  Saxons,  southwest  of  them 
along  the  lower  Rhine  the  Franks,  further  up  the 
Rhine  the  Alemanni  from  whom  the  French  derived 
their  name  for  the  Germans,  later,  between  these  two, 
came  the  Burgundians,  giving  the  name  of  Burgundy 
to  the  valley  of  the  Rhone,  east  of  them  were  the 
Bavarians,  and  farther  east,  along  the  Danube,  the 
Visigoths  and  Ostrogoths.  Driven  by  the  Turanian 
hordes  of  Huns  from  the  far  East,  the  Visigoths  had 
utterly  defeated  the  Roman  army  at  Hadrianople  in 
378,  and  the  Emperor  Valens  had  lost  his  life.  From 
this  battle  dates  the  great  invasion,  and  the  Germans 
came  swarming  into  the  Empire.  Theodosius  held 
the  Goths  in  check  while  he  lived,  making  treaties, 
settling  them  in  border  lands,  the  Visigoths  in  Thrace 
and  the  Ostrogoths  in  Pannonia  along  the  Danube, 
giving  them  the  name  of  Foederati.  Already  many 
of  them  were  serving  in  the  Roman  armies.  But  at 
last  under  the  great  Visigothic  leader  Alaric  they 
began  a  new  invasion.  At  this  date,  395  a.d.,  Theo- 
dosius died,  and  his  death,  for  many  reasons,  marks 


THE  INVASION  OF  THE  GERMANS  217 

the  close  of  an  epoch  in  the  world's  history.  He  was 
the  last  to  hold  in  one  grasp  the  undivided  Empire, 
and  under  his  successors  the  Empire  in  the  West 
rushed  impetuously  to  its  fall.  Honorius,  his  son 
and  successor,  shut  himself  up  in  Ravenna  and  left 
the  defence  of  the  Empire  to  his  Vandal  general  Stili- 
cho,  who  for  thirteen  years  had  been  the  foremost 
person  in  the  Empire  next  to  Theodosius.  Twice  did 
he  defeat  Alaric,  in  402  and  in  403,  and  again  in  405 
he  annihilated  the  Ostrogothic  army  of  Rhadagais 
near  Florence.  At  this  time  the  Vandals,  a  nation 
of  the  eastern  Germans,  following  the  Goths,  crossed 
the  Rhine,  and  passing  through  Gaul  and  Spain  with 
fearful  devastation  (which  has  made  their  name  the 
synonym  of  wanton  destroyers),  passed  into  Africa, 
leaving  their  name  in  the  province  of  Andalusia. 
Meanwhile  the  weak  Honorius,  influenced  by  the 
enemies  of  Stilicho,  put  that  great  general  to  death  in 
408,  and  thus  destroyed  one  of  the  last  great  pro- 
tectors of  the  Empire.  Hearing  of  this,  Alaric  re- 
turned, and,  unopposed,  twice  entered  and  sacked  the 
city  of  Rome,  in  409  and  in  410.  His  successor 
Athaulf  led  his  triumphant  host  into  Gaul,  where  they 
settled  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  with  Toulouse  as  a  capi- 
tal, and  thus  established,  415  a.d.,  the  first  Germanic 
kingdom  on  imperial  territory,  continuing  in  Gaul 
until  conquered  by  the  Franks  in  507,  and  in  Spain 
until  the  conquest  by  the  Mohammedans,  711  a.d. 
The  Vandals,  having  crossed  to  Africa,  established 
their  kingdom  there  under  Gaiseric  in  429,  lasting 
17 


218   FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

until  overthrown  by  Justinian's  generals,  534  a.d.  The 
kingdom  of  the  Burgundians,  the  scene  of  the  Nibe- 
lungenlied,  established  in  443,  was  in  its  turn  con- 
quered by  the  Franks,  534  a.d. 

A  new  peril  now  approached  from  the  East.  The 
Huns,  driving  the  Goths  before  them,  settled  on  the 
Danube  at  the  time  the  Goths,  by  the  victory  at 
Hadrianople,  had  crossed  into  the  Empire;  but  now, 
under  Attila,  encouraged  by  the  Vandal  Gaiseric,  they 
swept  acoss  the  Rhine  into  Gaul,  plundering  and  de- 
stroying and  gathering  in  allies  as  they  went.  Here 
they  were  met  by  the  Roman  general  Aetius  with  the 
Roman  "foederati"  under  him, — Visigoths,  Burgun- 
dians, Alemanni  and  Salian  Franks, —  while  under 
Attila  fought  Huns,  Ostrogoths  and  Ripuarian  Franks. 
The  battle,  one  of  the  great  decisive  battles  of  the 
world's  history,  called  the  "Battle  of  the  Nations" 
(usually  known  as  the  battle  of  Chalons),  was  fought  at 
Mery  on  the  Seine,  451  a.d.  The  next  year  Attila 
attacked  Italy,  destroyed  Aquileia  and  took  up  his 
residence  at  Milan.  Here  he  was  visited  by  Leo  the 
Great,  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  induced  to  return  to  his 
home  beyond  the  Danube,  where  he  died  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  and  his  immense  following  was  dispersed. 
At  this' time  also,  449  a.d.,  the  Angles,  the  Saxons 
and  the  Jutes  began  their  conquest  of  Britain. 

Once  more  the  jealousy  of  a  Roman  emperor 
brought  about  his  ruin.  Aetius,  called  the  last  of  the 
Romans,  was  assassinated  by  the  order  of  Valentinian 
in  in  454,   and  in  the  following  year  the  Senator 


THE  INVASION  OF  THE  GERMANS  219 

Maximus  murdered  the  emperor  and  took  his  place 
on  the  throne.  The  empress,  it  is  said,  called  to  her 
aid  the  Vandal  Gaiseric,  who  with  his  host  crossed 
over  from  Africa  and  took  possession  of  Rome,  455 
A.D.  Here  he  was  met  by  Leo  the  Great,  and  his 
fierceness  somewhat  mitigated,  though  Rome  suffered 
plunder  and  spoliation.  The  next  year  he  was  con- 
quered by  Ricimer,  but  remained  master  of  Africa 
and  the  Western  Mediterranean  until  his  death,  477 
A.D.  Ricimer  died  in  472,  and  the  conquest  by  the 
Herulian  Odoacer  in  476  ended  all  semblance  of 
Roman  power  in  the  West.  Thus  German  peoples  of 
different  names  had  established  their  kingdoms  in  all 
parts  of  the  Western  Empire;  and  at  last  the  end, 
for  which  it  had  been  preparing  for  so  long,  had  come. 
Various  reasons  for,  and  accounts  of  this  downfall 
have  been  given.  It  is  one  of  the  most  instructive 
facts  in  history.  The  main  cause  was  exhaustion. 
Internal  life  had  perished ;  luxury,  taxation,  war  and 
slavery  had  sapped  the  life  forces  of  the  Empire. 
Thus  Rome  fell,  but  in  falling  left  the  rich  treasures 
of  her  civilization,  her  organization,  her  language  and 
her  laws  as  a  legacy  in  trust  to  the  Christian  Church 
and  the  German  peoples. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Hodgkin,  T. — Italy  and  Her  Invaders.     8  vols.    Oxford,  1899. 

Allies,  T.  W. — The  Holy  See  and  the  Wandering  of  the 
Nations,    pp.  1-65.     Lond.,  1888. 

Adams,  G.  B, — Civilization  During  the  Middle  Ages.   pp.  65-88. 

Emerton,  E. — Introduction  to  the  Middle  Ages.  pp.  11-113. 
Boston,  1888. 


220  FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

§5.  St.  Patrick  and  the  Islands  of  the  West 

Little  is  known  of  the  origin  of  Christianity  among 
the  Britons.  The  first  missionaries  undoubtedly  came 
from  Gaul,  for  it  was  with  Gaul  that  they  then  had 
ecclesiastical  relations.  We  have  the  memory  of  the 
three  martyrs  of  the  Diocletian  persecutions,  Alban, 
Aaron  and  Julius  (though  Constantius  did  not  enforce 
the  edicts  in  his  provinces),  also  the  three  bishops  at 
the  Council  of  Aries  in  314.  Some  were  present  at 
Sardica  in  343  and  at  Rimini  in  359.  Victricius, 
Bishop  of  Rouen,  visited  the  British  churches  in  the 
last  quarter  of  the  fourth  century.  Twice  in  the  fifth 
century  Germanus,  Bishop  of  Auxerre, —  in  429  with 
Lupus,  Bishop  of  Troyes,  and  in  447  with  Severus, 
Bishop  of  Treves, —  visited  the  churches  of  Britain  to 
counteract  the  teachings  of  Pelagius,  a  British  monk 
(though  perhaps  of  Irish  birth).  But  the  invasion  of 
the  Picts  and  Scots  on  the  north  and  west  and  of 
the  Jutes,  Angles  and  Saxons  on  the  east  destroyed 
the  Roman  institutions,  wiped  out  cities  and  prov- 
inces, and  overthrew  the  local  Church  and  the  episco- 
pal organization.  When  a  little  order  was  restored, 
the  religious  grouping  had  for  centres  certain  monas- 
teries, where  the  remnant  of  the  clergy  was  absorbed 
by  the  monks ;  but  when  Augustine  landed  in  Kent 
in  597  he  found  only  a  few  British  Christians  in  the 
far  west  of  the  island.  We  have  a  few  remains  of  six 
or  eight  British  churches,  notably  at  St.  Martin's, 
Canterbury,   and   at  Silchester   in   Hampshire;   and 


ST.  PATRICK  AND  ISLANDS  OF  THE  WEST   221 

about  fifty  relics  of  various  kinds  are  thought  to  bear 
indications  of  Christianity.  Probably  no  Church  in 
the  world  has  left  in  the  region  which  it  once  occu- 
pied so  few  traces  of  its  existence.  Some  traces 
remain  of  the  work  of  a  British  bishop,  Ninius  or 
Ninian,  among  the  southern  Picts  from  about  400  to 
430  A.D.  The  centre  of  his  mission  was  in  what  is 
now  the  little  town  of  Whithorn,  where  he  built  a 
stone  church  called  Candida  Casa,  dedicated  in  the 
name  of  his  friend  Martin  of  Tours  whose  death  had 
recently  occurred.  The  island  of  Erin  (Hibernia), 
where  the  Romans  had  never  set  foot,  also  remained 
outside  of  Christendom.  In  431  it  was  reported  at 
Rome  that  Christianity  had  reached  the  Scots  (the 
island  was  called  Scotia  and  the  people  Scots  in  the 
fifth  century  and  later).  Palladius  was  consecrated 
at  Rome  to  be  their  first  bishop,  but  it  is  doubtful  if 
he  exercised  his  bishopric  there.  The  true  Apostle 
of  Ireland  was  Patrick.  Amid  the  many  legends, 
absurd  and  ridiculous  stories  which  have  obscured  his 
real  greatness  and  the  rare  beauty  of  his  character,  it 
is  now  possible  to  trace  the  outlines  of  his  true  his- 
tory. The  place  of  his  birth  is  disputed,  but  may  have 
been  Bannaventa  Berniae,  or  Deventry,  west  of  North- 
ampton. His  father  was  a  deacon  and  a  decurion,  his 
grandfather  a  presbyter.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he 
was  kidnapped  by  a  band  of  Scots  and  carried  to  Ire- 
land where  he  remained  six  years.  Here  he  decided 
on  his  future  work,  and  having  made  his  way  home  to 
get  the  proper  preparations  he  was  consecrated  bishop 


222   FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

and  returned  to  Ireland,  c.  432,  where  he  served  a  long 
and  arduous  episcopate  but  with  brilliant  success  until 
his  death,  c.  460  a.d.  Before  he  came,  he  said,  the 
only  gods  of  Ireland  were  idols ;  before  he  left  it  was 
a  land  of  Christian  people.  He  had  baptized  thou- 
sands, ordained  many  clergy,  consecrated  large  num- 
bers of  monks  and  virgins.  His  writings  show  him 
to  be  a  large,  generous  soul,  seeking  after  God,  anx- 
ious for  the  welfare  of  others,  feeling  a  deep  spiritual 
fatherhood  for  his  people.  Patrick  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  Christianity  in  Ireland  so  broad  and  deep  that 
in  the  sixth  century  Irish  monasteries  were  centres 
of  study  where  books  and  masters  abounded.  Men 
went  there  for  instruction  even  from  Britain  and  the 
continent. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Todd,  J.  H.— St.  Patrick  the  Apostle  of  Ireland. 
Stokes,  G.  T. — Ireland  and  the  Celtic  Church. 
Stokes,  Whitley.— The  Tripartite  Life  of  St.  Patrick. 
Bright,  Wm. — The  Roman   See   in  the  Early  Church,     pp. 

357-421. 

Stories  of  the  Nations.— Ireland.     Chapter  IV. 

§6.  Origenistic  Controversies 

The  most  distinguished  defenders  of  Nicene  ortho- 
doxy,— Athanasius,  Basil,  the  two  Gregorys,  Hilary 
and  others, — all  held  Origen  in  high  esteem.  But  the 
constant  reference  to  his  authority  by  the  Arians 
tended  to  make  him  an  object  of  suspicion  to  the  ex- 
treme orthodox.  In  Palestine  he  had  warm  sup- 
porters,— John,    Bishop   of   Jerusalem,    Jerome    and 


AUGUSTINE  AND  THEOLOGY  OF  THE  WEST    111 

Rufinus.  But  Jerome,  finding  liis  orthodoxy  ques- 
tioned on  account  of  his  championship  of  Origen,  pre- 
pared to  change  his  attitude.  The  leader  of  the 
opposition  was  Epiphanius  of  Cyprus  who  travelled 
about  denouncing  Origen  as  the  father  of  error. 
Rufinus  and  Jerome  were  estranged  by  the  controversy 
and  denounced  each  other  bitterly.  Siricius  and 
Anastasius,  Bishops  of  Rome,  took  part  in  the  con- 
troversy and  it  spread  to  Alexandria  where  Theophi- 
lus  drove  out  the  Origenist  monks  and  condemned 
Origen,  399  a.d.,  in  which  he  was  supported  by 
Epiphanius,  Jerome  and  Anastasius.  The  monks 
found  refuge  with  John  Chrysostom  in  Constantinople. 
Theophilus  aroused  the  clergy,  the  empress  and  the 
court  against  Chrysostom,  and  at  the  "Council  of  the 
Oak,"  403  A.D.,  pronounced  his  deposition  and  ban- 
ishment. Recalled  in  a  few  days  he  was  banished 
again,  404  a.d.,  and  died  in  Pontus,  407  a.d.  The 
controversy  was  renewed  in  the  next  century,  and 
fifteen  propositions  ascribed  to  Origen  were  con- 
demned at  a  synod  in  Constantinople  in  544.  His 
name  fell  into  disrepute  and  many  of  his  works  per- 
ished. It  has  remained  for  modern  times  to  revive 
his  greatness  and  to  show  his  true  worth  as  one  of 
the  world's  scholars  and  thinkers. 

§7.  Augustine  and  the  Theology  of  the  West 

Western  theology  had  its  head,  its  chief  exponent 
and  defender  as  well  as  its  organizer  in  Augustine, 
Bishop  of  Hippo,   395  to  430  a.d.     His  conversion, 


224   FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

387  A.D.,  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the 
Latin  Church.  His  whole  life  is  a  picture  of  the  age 
and  in  it  can  be  seen  in  miniature  the  crisis  through 
which  the  world  and  the  Church  were  passing.  He 
was  educated  as  a  rhetorician  and  was  familiar  with 
Latin  literature,  though  he  knew  Greek  only  super- 
ficially and  Hebrew  not  at  all,  using  Latin  versions 
of  writings  in  these  languages.  He  was  a  great  con- 
troversialist, and  had  not  the  constructive  power  of  a 
consecutive  thinker.  His  opinions  were  formed  in 
the  heat  of  debate  and  in  the  exigencies  of  argument 
rather  than  in  the  calm,  deep  process  of  speculative 
thought  and  analysis.  He  carried  with  him  the  scars 
of  his  contests.  His  earlier  Manichaeism  lent  an 
unconscious  coloring  to  his  maturer  views.  Hence 
he  was  not  always  consistent.  To  the  extreme  con- 
tradictory on  one  side  he  gave  the  extreme  contra- 
dictory on  the  other.  Against  the  Manichseans,  he 
maintained  individual  freedom  of  the  will;  against  the 
Pelagians,  the  absolute  sovereignty  of  God,  and 
against  the  Donatists,  the  authority  of  the  Church. 
Also,  against  the  Manichseans  he  maintained  the 
negative  character  of  evil,  but  against  the  Pelagians 
the  physical  transmission  of  sin.  He  had  all  the  fer- 
vor and  energy  of  the  African  style,  though  he  wrote 
a  purer  and  more  powerful  Latin.  He  is  the  summit 
and  the  source  of  the  development  of  the  Western 
Church.  From  him  descended  the  mysticism  no  less 
than  the  scholasticism  of  the  Middle  Ages ;  he  was  one 
of  the  strongest  pillars  of  the  papal  Church,  and  from 


AUGUSTINE  AND  THEOLOGY  OF  THE  WEST     225 

his  works,  next  to  the  Bible,  the  Protestants  drew 
their  strongest  convictions  and  interpretations.  His 
has  been  called  one  of  "those  minds  in  which  a  hun- 
dred others  dwell."  Origen  and  Augustine  alone, 
of  all  the  theologians  of  the  first  six  centuries,  became 
the  creators  of  distinct  systems  each  proceeding  from 
its  definite  idea  and  each  completely  carried  out.  In- 
deed each  illustrates  that  fundamental  difference  be- 
tween the  Eastern  and  Western  type  of  mind  and 
form  of  thought  which  ultimately  led  to  the  final 
separation  into  the  two  Churches.  Beside  the  differ- 
ence in  language  (not  merely  in  form  but  in  spirit  and 
power),  the  West  was  practical,  formal,  legal,  literal, 
material,  active  and  utilitarian;  while  the  East  was 
speculative,  mystical,  philosophical,  spiritual,  con- 
templative and  idealistic.  The  West  centred  its  the- 
ology about  man  and  his  salvation;  the  East  found 
the  centre  of  its  theology  in  the  Being  of  God,  His 
Person  and  Nature. 

Augustine  was  born  in  354  at  Tagaste  in  Nu- 
midia,  near  Hippo.  His  father  was  Patricius,  a 
heathen;  his  mother,  Monica,  a  Christian,  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  characters  in  history.  He  was 
educated  in  the  schools  of  Madaura  and  of  Car- 
thage, and  went  to  Rome  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric. 
Wild  and  lawless  in  his  youth,  he  was  roused  to  higher 
things  by  the  reading  of  Cicero's  Hortensius  (now 
lost).  He  became  a  Manichaean  in  373  and  remained 
under  that  influence  from  his  nineteenth  to  his  twenty- 
eighth  year,  as  an  'auditor'  (catechumen).     Then  he 


226  FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

became  a  sceptic,  but  soon  turned  to  Platonism. 
From  Rome  he  went  to  Milan  and  fell  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Ambrose.  The  strong,  practical,  eloquent 
assertion  of  authority  won  him.  In  September,  386 
A.D.,  he  tells  us  that  he  heard  a  voice  saying:  "Take 
and  read."  He  took  up  the  book  lying  near  him  and 
read  Romans  xiii:  14.  He  yielded,  and  was  baptized 
by  Ambrose,  Easter,  387  a.d.  On  his  way  back  to 
Africa  his  mother  died  in  his  arms,  the  prayer  of  her 
life  answered.  After  four  years  he  was  ordained 
presbyter  at  Hippo,  and  in  395  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Hippo  where  he  remained  until  his  death,  430  a.d., 
while  the  Vandals  were  thundering  at  the  gates  of  the 
city.  The  writings  of  Augustine,  numbering  more 
than  a  thousand  titles,  extending  over  forty-four  years, 
are  a  mine  of  Christian  knowledge  and  experience. 
The  wide  range  and  great  fertility  of  his  genius  may 
be  seen  from  this  list  of  his  principal  works  as  out- 
lined by  Schaff :  I.  Autobiographical,  (i)  The  Con- 
fessions, one  of  the  most  celebrated  works  of  religious 
genius.  (2)  The  Retractions.  Written  427  a.d.,  a 
revision  and  correction  of  all  his  former  writings. 
(3)  The  Letters  (nearly  three  hundred),  from  386 
to  429  A.D.  n.  Philosophical  Treatises.  Early,  and 
mostly  Platonic.  HI.  Apologetic.  Against  Pagans 
and  Jews,  (i)  The  City  of  God.  A  celebrated  phi- 
losophy of  history,  justifying  the  fall  of  Rome. 
IV.  Theological  —  General  and  Special,  (i)  Against 
the  Manichaeans.  (2)  Against  the  Pelagians.  (3) 
Against  the  Donatists.     (4)  Against  the  Arians,  and 


THE  DONATISTS  227 

several  against  other  heretics.  (5)  The  Trinity.  (6) 
Christian  Doctrine.  V.  Exegetical.  Genesis.  VI. 
Ethical  and  Practical.  Nearly  four  hundred  sermons, 
moral  treatises,  etc.  It  was  most  significant  that  the 
Augustinian  system  of  theology,  the  Latin  Bible 
of  Jerome  and  the  papal  organization  of  the  Church 
appeared  just  in  that  transitional  period  of  history  in 
which  the  old  civilization  was  passing  away  before  the 
flood  of  barbarism. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Harnack,  A. — History  of  Dogma. 

Schaff,  P.— History  of  the  Church.     Vol.  III. 

Schaff,  P. — St.  Chrysostom  and  St.  Augustine.     N.  Y.,  1891. 

Clark,  W.  R.— St.  Augustine.     (S.  P.  C.  K.)     Lond.,  1881. 

Bright,  Wm. — Athanasius,  Chrysostom  and  Augustine. 
Lond.,  1890, 

Moule,  H.  C.  G. — St.  Augustine. 

Cunningham,  Wm. — St.  Austin's  Place  in  Christian  Thought. 

Allen,  A.  V.  G. — Continuity  of  Christian  Thought,  pp.  3-15  ; 
130-172. 

See  also  the  next  two  sections. 

§8.  The  Donatists 

The  schism  of  the  Donatists  is  one  of  the  most 
characteristic  and  instructive  movements  in  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries.  It  involved  all  the  questions 
raised  by  the  new  relations  between  the  Church  and 
the  Empire,  brought  about  by  the  conversion  of  Con- 
stantine  and  the  increased  importance  of  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Church.  How  far  was  actual  holiness 
essential  to  the  reality  of  membership  in  the  Church 


228  FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

and  to  the  validity  of  the  functions  of  the  clergy  ? 
How  far  must  the  inconsistency  go  to  justify  separa- 
tion? In  other  words,  What  is  the  relation  of  the  in- 
visible, spiritual  Church  to  the  visible,  outward 
organization?  How  far  are  they  identical ?  It  was 
natural  that  these  questions  should  arouse  most  in- 
terest and  come  most  squarely  to  an  issue  in  the 
North  African  Church,  whose  earliest  great  spirit, 
Tertullian,  had  been  the  avowed  spokesman  of  the 
similar  movement  of  Montanism  in  the  second  cen- 
tury, and  whose  next  great  teacher,  Cyprian,  had 
aroused  the  opposition  of  Novatus  and  his  followers 
in  the  third  century.  As  the  schism  of  Novatus 
arose  out  of  the  circumstances  of  the  Decian  persecu- 
tion, against  the  mild  treatment  of  the  lapsed,  so  the 
schism  of  the  Donatists  arose  in  the  Diocletian  per- 
secution ;  when  many  of  the  iraditores  gave  up  heret- 
ical books  to  the  agents  of  the  government,  who  did 
not  know  the  difference.  To  the  more  rigorous  this 
appeared  as  an  unv^rorthy  evasion.  Mensurius,  Bishop 
of  Carthage,  and  his  archdeacon,  Cecilian,  later  his 
successor,  were  accused  of  this  evasion  and  also  of 
opposing  the  extravagant  honors  given  to  confessors, 
and  the  excessive  belief  in  the  efficacy  of  relics.  The 
rigorous  party  chose  Majorinus,  and  when  he  died,  in 
315,  Donatus  was  put  forward  against  Cecilian.  On 
account  of  the  zeal  and  ability  of  Donatus  his  name 
was  given  to  the  schism.  The  schismatics  under 
Majorinus  appealed  to  Constantine  soon  after  the 
battle  of  Milvian  Bridge.     He  appointed  three  bishops 


THE  DONA  TfSTS  229 

of  Gaul  to  arbitrate.  They,  with  fifteen  Italian  bish- 
ops, met  at  Rome,  under  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  and 
acquitted  Cecilian  and  made  provision  for  the 
Donatist  bishops.  But  these  were  not  satisfied,  and 
the  whole  matter  was  referred  to  a  synod  at  Aries,  in 
314,  the  first  council  ever  called  by  imperial  authority. 
Here  the  preceding  judgment  was  confirmed  and  the 
principle  laid  down  that  the  sacraments  of  ordination 
and  baptism  were  valid,  even  when  baptism  was 
administered  by  a  heretic  and  ordination  by  a  tradi- 
tor,  if  the  person  ordained  was  duly  qualified.  The 
Donatists  again  appealed  to  the  emperor  who  upheld 
the  decision  of  the  council,  and  proceeded  to  deprive 
them  of  their  churches,  exiling  their  leading  bishops 
and  even  putting  some  to  death.  This  roused  them 
to  fury  and  put  them  in  a  position  of  antagonism  to 
both  the  Church  and  the  Empire.  In  this  revolt  they 
were  joined  by  bands  of  fanatical  ascetics,  called  'cir- 
cumcellions'  because  they  went  about  among  the  barns 
icellas)  of  the  peasants  inciting  them  to  revolt  and 
stirring  them  up  to  deeds  of  violence  and  brutality, 
inspired  by  communistic  notions  similar  to  those  in 
the  peasants'  war  in  Luther's  time.  Constantine 
then  decided,  321  a.d.,  to  use  milder  measures.  He 
repealed  all  the  edicts  against  them  and  permitted  the 
return  of  their  bishops,  exhorting  the  Catholics  to 
be  patient  and  leave  them  to  the  judgment  of  God. 
At  a  Donatist  synod  in  330  two  hundred  and  seventy 
of  their  bishops  were  present,  though  there  were  only 
two  congregations  outside  of  Africa, —  one  in  Spain 


230  FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

and  the  other  in  Rome.  Constans  in  348  attempted  to 
restore  peace.  But  Donatus  resisted  by  force;  many 
of  his  followers  were  executed,  many  exiled,  among 
the  latter  Donatus  himself,  and  for  a  time  the  Dona- 
tists  were  reduced  to  silence  and  secrecy.  But  under 
Julian,  according  to  his  policy  to  let  the  Christians 
fight  among  themselves,  all  were  restored  and  the 
struggle  was  renewed.  Donatus  died  in  exile  and 
Parmenian  succeeded  him  as  Donatist  Bishop  of  Car- 
thage. Gratian  in  378  issued  an  edict  forbidding  all 
assemblies  of  the  Donatists  and  confiscating  their 
churches.  Augustine  began  a  twofold  campaign 
against  them  ;  by  trying  to  convert  them,  and  by  rais- 
ing the  standard  of  Christian  life  in  his  own  com- 
munity, so  that  their  puritan  objections  would  have 
no  justification.  Their  two  characteristic  tenets  were : 
a  Church  which  tolerates  sinners  ceases  to  be  a  true 
Church;  and  those  who  come  over  from  such  a 
Church  must  be  re-baptized. 

Honorius,  in  398,  issued  an  edict  against  them.  A 
synod  at  Carthage  in  404  invoked  the  secular  arm 
against  them  and  Honorius  continued  his  edicts 
against  them  from  405  to  407.  Milder  measures 
followed  in  409,  though  soon  withdrawn,  and  a 
conference  was  held  by  order  of  the  emperor  at  Car- 
thage in  411,  a  hundred  years  after  the  beginning  of 
the  schism.  The  decision  of  the  imperial  delegates 
was  given  in  favor  of  the  Catholics.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  another  edict  against  the  Donatists,  con- 
firmed in  412,  forbidding  their  assemblies,  confiscating 


THE  PELAGIAN  CONTROVERSY  231 

their  churches,  inflicting  heavy  fines  on  all,  banishing 
the  bishops  persisting  in  the  schism  and  depriving 
all  schismatics  of  civil  rights;  and  later,  in  spite  of 
Augustine's  protest,  forbidding  them  to  assemble 
under  pain  of  death.  Many  hundreds  returned  to  the 
Church.  From  this  time  their  numbers  continued  to 
diminish,  until,  in  the  terrible  invasion  of  the  Van- 
dals, 428  A.D.,  "Donatists  and  Catholics  alike  were 
lost  in  the  Arian  Cloud." 

SPECIAL  REFERENCE 

Holms,  L.  R. — The  Extinction  of  the  Churches  in  North 
Africa.     Lond.,  1898. 

§9.    The  Pelagian  Controversy; 
Semi-Pelagianism 

While  the  East  was  engaged  in  the  great  Christo- 
logical  controversy,  the  West  was  occupied  with  the 
great  Soteriological  controversy  regarding  sin  and  sal- 
vation. Before  Augustine,  the  teaching  of  the  Church 
on  this  subject  was  exceedingly  crude  and  indefinite. 
The  Greek,  particularly  the  Alexandrian,  Fathers,  in 
opposition  to  the  dualism  and  fatalism  of  the  Gnostics 
had  laid  great  stress  on  human  freedom  and  its  co- 
operation with  divine  grace;  while  the  Latin,  espe- 
cially the  North  African,  Fathers  emphasized  the  he- 
reditary sin  and  guilt  of  man  and  the  sovereignty  of 
God's  grace.  The  one  is  called  synergism,  the  other 
divine  monergism.  Pelagianism  asserted  on  the  other 
side  a  human  monergism.     The  Eastern  controversy, 


232  FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

as  to  the  relation  between  the  divine  and  the  human 
in  the  person  of  Christ,  inevitably  involved  the  appli- 
cation of  the  same  issue  in  all  the  relations  of  human- 
ity to  God,  where  the  divine  and  human  meet.  Thus 
the  Pelagian  controversy  was,  after  all,  the  Western, 
or  practical,  form  of  the  same  question  which  appeared 
in  the  Eastern,  or  Christological,  form.  It  was  as- 
sumed in  the  Pelagian  controversy  by  both  parties, 
by  Augustine  as  well  as  by  Pelagius,  that  whatever 
was  ascribed  to  the  human  agency  in  the  matter  of 
salvation  was  so  much  taken  from  the  divine ;  what 
was  done  by  man,  whether  in  conversion  or  in 
human  history,  appeared  to  be  so  much  done  without 
God ;  what  was  done  by  God  was  as  some  external 
action,  outside  and  independent  of  man.  The  per- 
plexities and  inconsistencies  are  due  to  the  failure  to 
maintain  the  distinction,  without  the  separation  be- 
tween the  human  and  the  divine.  Leo  perhaps  wrote 
wiser  than  he  knew  when  he  sent  his  famous  letter  to 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon  declaring  that  the  divine 
and  human  were  not  to  be  mingled  or  confounded, 
while  yet  they  were  not  to  be  separated  or  divided. 
Pelagius  was  probably  a  British  monk,  perhaps  of 
Irish  descent.  The  original  form  of  his  name  seems 
to  have  been  Morgan  (Marigena;  in  Greek,  Pelagios). 
He  was  born  c.  350  a.d.  He  was  intellectual, 
pious,  ascetic  and  peace-loving,  learned  in  Greek 
philosophy.  He  went  to  Rome  about  400  or  earlier, 
and  called  forth  no  criticism  until  his  follower,  Celes- 
tius,  was  attacked  by  Paulinus,  one   of  Ambrose's 


THE  PELA  GIA  N  CONTRO  VERSY  233 

deacons  who  was  in  Africa  looking  after  the  affairs  of 
the  Church  of  Milan.  At  Rome,  in  409,  he  issued  his 
commentary  on  "St.  Paul's  Epistles." 

Here  he  converted  the  advocate  Celestius,  a  man  of 
acute  intellect  and  able  in  debate.  To  escape  the 
dreaded  Alaric,  Pelagius  went  to  North  Africa  in  410 
and  thence  to  Palestine.  Celestius  followed  him  to 
Carthage  in  411,  where  he  was  opposed  by  Pauli- 
nus,  and  a  local  synod  declared  his  opinions  heretical 
and  excommunicated  him.  He  then  went  to  Ephesus 
where  he  was  ordained.  But  the  struggle  went  on  in 
the  West,  and  then  Augustine  took  it  up.  Pelagius 
went  to  Jerusalem  and  was  approved  at  a  synod  held 
at  Diospolis  in  Desember,  415,  at  which  Pelagius  re- 
pudiated the  teachings  of  Celestius  and  by  implica- 
tion his  own.  Two  African  synods  were  held,  one 
at  Carthage,  and  one  at  Mileve,  in  416,  which  con- 
demned Pelagius  and  Celestius  and  sent  the  decrees 
to  Rome.  Innocent  replied  confirming  their  action. 
Augustine  in  one  of  his  sermons  uttered  the  famous 
words:  "On  this  matter  two  Councils  have  been  sent 
to  the  Apostolic  See;  the  answers  have  arrived.  The 
cause  is  ended;  would  that  the  error  also  might  end." 
But  Innocent  was  succeeded  in  417  by  Zosimus  whom 
Duchesne  calls  "an  anomaly."  He  was  won  over  by 
Celestius,  and  a  Roman  synod  upheld  both  the  leaders. 
The  Africans,  however,  secured  a  rescript  from  the 
emperor  in  418,  ordering  the  leaders  to  be  driven  out 
of  Rome,  their  followers  exiled  and  their  goods  con- 
fiscated ;  they  also  held  an  unusually  large  synod  in 
18 


234  FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

the  same  year  to  maintain  their  position  against  Zosi- 
mus.  He  was  now  induced  to  yield,  and  confirmed  the 
condemnation.  Eighteen  Italian  bishops  refused  to 
subscribe  and  were  banished.  Among  them  was 
Julian,  Bishop  of  Eclanum,  who  continued  to  uphold 
Pelagianism ;  but  we  hear  no  more  of  Pelagius.  Nesto- 
rius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  gave  his  protection 
to  the  exiled  Pelagians,  but  this  injured  both  of  them, 
and  at  the  General  Council  of  Ephesus,  in  431,  Nesto- 
rius,  Celestius  and  Pelagius  were  all  condemned.  A 
Semi-Pelagian  party,  however,  arose  in  Gaul  under 
John  Cassianus,  the  champion  and  one  of  the  founders 
of  western  monasticism.  Vincentius  Lerinesnis  (Vin- 
cent of  the  monastery  of  Lerinum  or  Lerins)  was  the 
most  famous  of  his  followers,  and  laid  down  the 
principle  that  the  Catholic  Faith  is  that  which  "al- 
ways, everywhere  and  by  all"  has  been  believed. 
Judged  by  this  standard,  however,  Augustine's 
doctrine  was  by  no  means  catholic.  After  Augus- 
tine's death  Hilary  and  Prosper,  two  lay  disciples, 
took  up  this  cause.  A  presbyter,  Lucidus,  a  zealous 
adherent  of  predestinationism,  was  forced  to  recant 
by  a  Semi-Pelagian  synod  at  Aries,  in  475,  and  in 
the  same  year  a  synod  at  Lyons  sanctioned  Semi- 
Pelagianism.  Avitus,  Bishop  of  Vienne,  and  Cae- 
sarius,  Bishop  of  Aries,  set  forth  a  moderate  Au- 
gustinianism  and  won  for  it  a  victory  at  the  Synod 
of  Orange  in  529,  confirmed  at  the  Synod  of  Val- 
ence in  the  same  year  and  by  Boniface  H,  of  Rome, 
530  A.D. 


THE  CHRISTOLOGICAL  CONTROVERSY      235 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Harnack. — History  of  Dogma.     V,  pp.  3-261. 

Schaff. — History  of  the  Church.     Ill,  pp.  802-870. 

Bright,  Wm. — Anti-Pelagian  Treatises  of  Augustine.  Way- 
marks  in  Church  History.     Chapter  VIII. 

Mozley,  J.  B. — Treatise  on  Augustine's  Doctrine  of  Predesti- 
nation.    Lond.,  1878. 

Mozley,  J.  B. — Ruling  Ideas  in  Early  Ages. 

Souter,  Alex. — Commentary  of  Pelagius  on  St.  Paul's  Epis- 
tles, Proceedings  of  the  British  Academy,  1905-1906.  pp.  409-439. 

§10.  The  Christological  Controversy 

(i)   The  Nestorian  Controversy  and  the  Third 
General  Council 

After  the  Council  of  Constantinople  the  difference 
between  the  two  schools,  the  Alexandrian  and  the 
Antiochian,  became  more  apparent.  The  speculative 
and  mystical  Alexandrian  tended  toward  the  Apollina- 
rian  emphasis  on  the  divine;  asserting  the  two  natures 
before  the  Incarnation,  but  making  the  union  so  close 
after  the  Incarnation  that  the  Virgin  Mary  was  called 
the  mother  of  God  (Theotokos).  On  the  other  hand, 
the  more  literal,  practical  Antiochian  school,  with 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  at  its  head,  inclined  to  the 
other  extreme  of  such  a  distinction  between  the  two 
natures  as  amounted  almost  to  a  separation,  with  a 
tendency  to  emphasize  the  human  in  opposition  to  the 
Alexandrian  over-emphasis  of  the  divine.  In  both 
cases,  the  true  meaning  of  the  Incarnation  was  in 
danger  of  being  lost:  by  appearing  in  the  Alexandrian 
as  ft  transmutation  or  absorption  of  the  human  into  the 


236    FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

divine,  and  in  the  Antiochian  as  an  indwelling  of 
the  divine  in  the  human,  or  a  moral  union  of  the  two 
persons.  The  difficulty  was  due  in  large  measure  to 
a  failure  to  define  accurately  the  terms  'nature'  and 
'person,'  and  to  understand  what  unity  between  them 
implied.  Nor  was  there  an  adequate  empirical  knowl- 
edge of  human  nature  itself.  Indeed,  'nature, '  whether 
in  God  or  man,  owing  to  the  tendency  of  defining 
spiritual  things  with  physical  terms,  was  conceived  as 
a  sort  of  physical  essence.  The  controversy  contin- 
ued for  over  two  hundred  years  with  extraordinary 
violence.  The  Roman  Church  took  a  calmer  but  none 
the  less  definite  part  in  the  controversy  and  twice, 
—  at  the  Fourth  Council  and  at  the  Sixth, —  decided 
the  victory  by  the  powerful  influence  of  the  Bishop  of 
Rome.  After  the  condemnation  of  the  attempt  of 
Apollinaris  to  explain  and  assert  the  divinity  of  Christ 
by  the  mutilation  of  His  humanity,  Nestorius,  of  the 
Antiochian  school,  so  emphasized  the  human  nature 
of  Christ  as  to  make  almost  a  double  personality. 
At  first  a  monk,  then  a  presbyter  at  Antioch,  he  be- 
came the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  428  a.d.  In 
his  opening  sermon  he  addressed  the  emperor  with 
these  words:  "Give  me  the  earth  purified  from  here- 
tics and  I  will  give  thee  heaven.  Help  me  to  conquer 
the  heretics  and  I  will  help  thee  to  conquer  the  Per- 
sians." He  was  most  bitter  against  all  heretics, 
except  the  Pelagians.  His  own  troubles  began  with 
opposition  to  the  term  Theotokos,  which  had  been 
applied  to  the  Virgin  Mary  by  Origen,  Alexander, 


THE  CHRISTOLOGICAL  CONTROVERSY       227 

Athanasius,  Basil  and  the  other  Alexandrians,  in 
order  to  emphasize  the  divine  nature  of  Jesus,  but  was 
now  passing  into  the  devotional  language  of  the  people 
with  almost  idolatrous  signification.  The  Antiochian 
theology,  however,  could  not  conceive  a  human  na- 
ture without  a  human  personality,  and  this  separated 
from  the  divine  Logos.  'Theotokos'  became  the  watch- 
word in  this  controversy,  just  as  'homoousios'  had 
been  in  the  Arian.  The  opposition  to  it  by  Nestorius 
struck  a  double  blow,  against  theological  doctrine  and 
against  religious  sentiment  due  to  the  growing  vener- 
ation of  the  Virgin  Mary.  Theologically  it  weakened 
the  doctrine  and  meaning  of  the  Incarnation,  by 
pressing  the  distinction  of  the  two  natures  till  it  in- 
volved double  personality.  It  made  the  Incarnation 
merely  the  bringing  of  a  man  into  fellowship  with 
the  Logos, —  the  Person  of  Jesus  a  temple  of  the  in- 
dwelling Logos, — a  mere  outward  or  mechanical  union. 
His  chief  opponent  was  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  learned 
and  energetic  but  passionate  and  ambitious.  Eccle- 
siastical politics  and  prejudices  embittered  the  strife. 
A  synod  at  Alexandria,  in  430,  under  Cyril,  con- 
firmed by  Celestine,  Bishop  of  Rome,  condemned 
twelve  of  the  propositions  of  Nestorius.  Nestorius, 
supported  by  Theodoret  and  by  John  of  Antioch, 
replied  in  like  manner,  and  accused  the  Alexandrians 
of  Apollinarianism.  The  two  emperors,  Theodosius  II 
and  Valentinian  III,  called  a  general  council  at  Ephe- 
sus  in  431.  Jealousy,  passion  and  intrigue  marked 
its     proceedings.      Cyril     of    Alexandria    presided. 


238    FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

Nestorius  refused  to  appear,  and  the  council  was 
opened  before  John  of  Antioch  and  the  Syrian  bishops 
arrived.  At  the  first  session  Nestorius  was  con- 
demned and  deposed.  John  arrived  four  days  later 
and  held  a  council  of  his  own,  at  which  he  deposed 
Cyril  and  his  chief  supporter,  Memnon  of  Ephesus. 
Two  weeks  later,  two  bishops  and  a  priest,  the  dele- 
gates of  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  arrived  and  supported 
Cyril.  The  emperor  confirmed  all  three  depositions, 
but  later  restored  Cyril  and  Memnon.  Nestorius 
retired  to  his  former  cloister  at  Antioch.  In  435  he 
was  banished  to  Upper  Egypt,  where,  after  suffering 
great  indignities,  he  died,  probably  in  451.  Two 
years  later,  after  the  council,  a  formula  of  union, 
asserting  the  union  of  the  two  natures  and  the  'Theo- 
tokos,'  was  drawn  up  by  Theodoret  and  was  accepted 
by  both  Cyril  and  John.  Nestorianism  did  not  come 
to  an  end  on  the  condemnation  of  its  founder.  The 
Nestorians  continued  in  Persia  and  spread  through 
the  East  into  China  and  India.  They  still  remain  in 
Armenia  and  the  valleys  of  Hindustan  and  in  Eastern 
India  on  the  coast  of  Malabar. 

(2)  The  Eutychia7i  Controversy  and  the  Fourth 
General  Council 

Though  the  Third  Council  had  condemned  Nesto- 
rius, nothing  was  done  to  determine  the  true  doctrine 
on  the  subject  of  the  two  natures.  As  the  Antiochian 
theology  produced  Nestorianism,  which  carried  the 
distinction  between  the  two  natures  to  the  extreme 


THE  CHRISTOLOGICAL  CONTROVERSY      239 

of  separation  into  two  persons,  so  the  Alexandrian 
produced  Eutychianism,  which  emphasized  the  divine 
personality  of  Christ  to  the  absorption  of  the  human 
nature.  Cyril  died  in  444,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Dioscorus,  who  surpassed  him  in  his  violent  temper, 
but  fell  behind  in  intellectual  and  theological  ability. 
Eutyches,  an  aged  presbyter  and  head  of  a  cloister  at 
Constantinople,  brought  the  extreme  Alexandrian 
views  to  a  head  and  declared  that,  after  the  Incar- 
nation, there  was  only  one  nature,  the  impersonal 
human  nature  being  assimilated  and  deified  by  the  per- 
sonal Logos,  even  H  is  body  being  a  divine  body.  Euty- 
ches was  condemned  at  a  local  synod  of  the  patriarch 
Flavian,  held  at  Constantinople  in  448,  and  both 
parties  appealed  to  distant  bishops,  particularly  to  Leo, 
Bishop  of  Rome.  Leo  replied  in  a  letter  to  Flavian 
which  has  become  a  classic  statement  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Incarnation  and  was  made  the  basis  of  the 
decision  at  Chalcedon.  Theodosius,  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  Dioscorus,  called  a  general  council  at  Ephesus 
in  449.  A  hundred  and  thirty-five  bishops  attended. 
Dioscorus  presided,  aided  by  a  band  of  brutal  monks 
and  armed  soldiers.  Amid  the  greatest  violence  and 
confusion,  which  made  the  council  a  scandal  to  the 
Church,  only  one  side  was  heard;  Eutyches  was  up- 
held, and  Theodoret,  Flavian,  Ibas  and  others  were 
deposed.  Flavian  died  of  the  wounds  which  he  re- 
ceived. Leo  showed  his  masterly  ability,  dignity 
and  boldness  in  his  protests  against  what  he  called  a 
Council  of  Brigands,  and  used  the  occasion  to  enhance 


240   FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

the  authority  of  the  Roman  See.  Marcian,  who  suc- 
ceeded Theodosius  II,  in  450,  summoned  a  new 
council  to  meet  at  Nicaea  in  451,  moved  as  he  says, 
"by  the  letters  of  Leo,  the  most  holy  Archbishop  of 
Rome"  ;  though  in  truth  Leo  would  have  preferred  to 
hold  it  in  the  West.  The  turbulence  of  the  bishops 
at  Nicaea  led  to  their  removal  to  Chalcedon,  right 
opposite  Constantinople,  to  secure  the  presence  of  the 
emperor.  In  attendance  it  far  exceeded  any  other 
council  of  the  ancient  Church,  and  in  doctrinal  im- 
portance, is  second  only  to  the  First  General  Council, 
Estimates  of  the  number  of  bishops  vary  from  520  to 
630,  though  all,  except  the  Roman  delegates  and  two 
Africans,  were  Greeks  and  Orientals.  The  imperial 
commissioners  conducted  the  proceedings  and  a  Roman 
delegate  for  the  first  time  presided.  The  proceedings 
were  tumultuous  and  undignified.  At  the  first  session 
the  decisions  of  the  "Brigands"  were  annulled,  the 
martyr  Flavian  declared  orthodox,  Dioscorus  deposed 
and  Theodoret  restored  after  anathematizing  Nesto- 
rius.  At  the  second  session,  the  Creed  of  Epi- 
phanius,  presented  by  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  at  the  Council 
of  Constantinople  and  there  approved  as  orthodox, 
was  presented  as  the  Creed  of  Constantinople,  and 
approved  side  by  side  with  the  original  Creed  of 
Nicaea  which  it  afterwards  supplanted  until  it  is  now 
known  as  the  Nicene  Creed  (with  the  addition  of  the 
"filioque"  clause  made  in  the  sixth  century  and  in- 
corporated by  Charlemagne).  At  the  same  time  the 
Letter  of  Leo  to  Flavian,  "The  Tome  of  Leo,"  was 


THE  CANON  OF  SCRIPTURE  241 

read  and  approved  as  the  "Faith  of  the  Fathers,"  and 
later  the  important  words  of  Leo's  epistle  were  made 
the  decision  of  the  Council.  The  symbol  was  then 
solemnly  ratified.  Ibas  was  restored  and  twenty-eight 
canons  passed.  The  emperor  by  his  edicts  gave  the 
force  of  law  to  its  decisions  and  ordered  all  Eutychians 
to  be  banished  and  their  writings  burned.  Leo 
accepted  and  confirmed  all  the  acts  of  the  council 
except  the  28th  canon  which  placed  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  on  an  equality  with  him.  This  coun- 
cil did  not  end  the  controversy.  Its  decisions  were 
regarded  by  the  Egyptian  party  as  completely  Nes- 
torian.  Indeed  the  Chalcedonian  definition  has  been 
called  "a  Roman  formula  forced  on  the  Oriental 
Church  by  imperial  authority."  Its  decisions  passed 
through  the  fiery  opposition  of  the  Monophysite  and 
Monothelite  controversies  which  convulsed  the 
Eastern  Church  for  more  than  two  centuries,  and  left 
many  still  unconvinced  and  unreconciled. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

DuBose,  W.  P. — The  Ecumenical  Councils  :  The  Epochs  of 
Church  History.     Vol.  III. 

Allen. — Christian  Institutions,    pp.  374-381. 

Baker,  J.  F.  Bethune. — Nestorius  and  His  Teaching.  Camb., 
1908.    Based  on  the  recently  edited  Apology  of  Nestorius. 

Domer,  J.  A. — Doctrine  of  the  Person  of  Christ.  Div.  II, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  1-119. 

§11.  The  Canon  of  Scripture 

Although  practically  settled  in  the  last  half  of  the 
second   century,    there   were  in  the   fourth   century 


242  FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

differing  views  regarding  the  exact  number  of  strictly 
canonical  books.  In  the  Old  Testament  the  books  of 
the  Hebrew  Canon  had  the  highest  authority,  but  the 
list  in  the  Greek  version  of  the  Septuagint,  called  the 
Alexandrian  Canon,  comprised  additional  books,  not 
accepted  by  all,  but  regarded  as  valuable  for  historical 
and  devotional  purposes.  Still  other  books  had  some 
circulation  but  were  generally  regarded  as  spurious. 
Jerome,  however,  applied  the  term  Apocrypha  to  all 
books  not  in  the  Hebrew  Canon.  The  current  Latin 
Bible,  however,  was  a  translation  from  the  Septuagint 
indicating  no  variations  in  degree  of  authority;  and 
the  great  leaders  of  the  Latin  Church  were  unwilling 
to  draw  distinctions  which  might  shake  the  received 
tradition.  Augustine  took  this  position  and  (doubt- 
less under  his  influence)  the  Third  Council  of  Car- 
thage, in  397,  authorized  the  Alexandrian  Canon  of 
the  Septuagint,  and  that  usage  was  followed,  though 
the  tradition  of  Jerome's  distinction  was  kept  alive  and 
is  followed  in  the  English  Church.  The  books  gen- 
erally circulated  as  the  New  Testament,  Eusebius 
divided  into  three  classes  —  Accepted,  Disputed  and 
Spurious.  From  the  time  of  Irenaeus  the  four  Gos- 
pels, The  Acts,  thirteen  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (authorship  uncertain)  I 
Peter,  I  John,  and  the  Apocalypse,  were  generally 
accepted,  and  so  classified  by  Eusebius,  though 
there  was  some  hesitation  about  the  Apocalypse  on 
account  of  its  contents.  There  was  still  some  un- 
certainty in  regard  to  the  Epistle  of  James,  H  Peter, 


THE  SACRAMENTS  243 

II  and  III  John,  and  Jude;  and  Eusebius  classified 
them  as  Disputed.  The  Acts  of  Paul,  the  Epistle 
to  the  Laodiceans,  Shepherd  of  Hermas,  Apocalypse 
of  Peter,  Didache,  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and  I  Clement 
were  read  in  the  churches  but  not  regarded  as  having 
any  claim  to  canonicity,  and  so  were  classified  as 
Spurious. 

Most  of  the  uncertainties  regarding  the  seven  books 
about  which  there  was  some  dispute,  —  i.e.,  the  five 
"Disputed"  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  and  the 
Apocalypse,  —  were  cleared  away  or  disregarded,  and 
the  seven  were  included  with  the  acknowledged  books 
of  the  New  Testament.  In  the  Western  Church  the 
canon  was  closed  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century 
by  Jerome  and  Augustine,  at  the  Council  of  Carthage, 
397  A.D.,  following  the  Alexandrian  Canon  for  the 
Old  Testament  and  the  complete  canon  of  the  New 
Testament  as  we  have  it  to-day.  This  was  confirmed 
at  Rome  by  Innocent  I,  414  a.d. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Sanday,  W. — Inspiration.     Lond.,  1896. 

Westcott,  B.  F.— The  Bible  in  the  Church.  (See  Special 
References,  A.  II,  §11.) 

§12.  The  Sacraments 

While  nothing  was  definitely  established  as  to  the 
exact  nature  and  number  of  the  Sacraments,  the  in- 
creasing importance  of  Confirmation,  as  a  rite  sepa- 
rated from  Baptism,  and  of  Ordination,  and  the  Chris- 
tian sanctity  of  Marriage,  tended  to  bring  all  three  of 


244  FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

these  within  the  list  of  Sacraments,  or  solemn  acts  of 
worship  in  which  special  grace  was  communciated, 
according  to  the  definition  of  Augustine, — "a  visible 
sign  of  an  invisible  grace."  He  speaks  of  Baptism 
and  the  Eucharist  as  the  chief  Sacraments  and  ex- 
pressly names  Confirmation,  Ordination  and  Marriage 
as  Sacraments.  Other  writers  of  the  period  speak  of 
one,  or  of  all  three  of  these  as  Sacraments.  Diony- 
sius,  the  neo-Platonistic  Christian  Mystic,  falsely 
called  the  Areopagite,  whose  writings  belong  probably 
to  the  last  part  of  the  fifth  century  (or  early  sixth), 
enumerates  six  Sacraments:  the  Eucharist,  Baptism, 
Confirmation,  Anointing  of  the  Dead,  Ordination  of 
Priests,  and  Ordination  of  Monks.  (Monks  were 
ordained  after  385  a.d.)  Others  mention  Feet 
Washing.  After  the  fifth  century  the  number  seven 
was  generally  accepted  but  not  definitely  fixed  until 
the  twelfth  century.  Baptism  was  usually  adminis- 
tered at  Easter,  less  frequently  at  Pentecost.  Adults 
who  wished  to  be  baptized  gave  their  names  as  cate- 
chumens or  hearers.  Not  all  were  admitted;  those 
who  were  had  to  have  sponsors  to  testify  to  their 
good  intentions.  At  first  the  catechumenate  lasted 
two  or  even  three  years,  but  toward  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century  the  time  was  shortened  and  forty 
days  became  the  usual  time.  Daily  instruction  was 
given,  and  they  were  frequently  exorcised.  In  the 
last  week,  on  Thursday,  they  bathed,  on  Friday  and 
Saturday  fasted,  on  Saturday  were  exorcised,  and, 
after  midnight,  came  to  the  baptistry  bringing  a  loaf 


THE  SACRAMENTS  245 

of  bread  for  the  Eucharist.     (The  Baptistry  is   de- 
scribed in  §15.) 

Sometimes,  not  always,  there  was  a  blessing  of  the 
water.  The  bishop  blessed  two  oils,  of  exorcism 
and  of  anointing.  Each  candidate,  or,  in  case  of  an 
infant,  a  sponsor,  turned  to  the  west  and  renounced 
Satan;  was  then  anointed  with  the  oil  of  exorcism,  by 
the  presbyter  in  case  of  males,  in  case  of  females  by 
one  of  the  widows,  or  a  deaconess,  behind  a  veil. 
Then  turned  to  the  east  saying,  "I  submit  to  the 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,"  etc.  The  presbyter 
and  the  deacon  then  took  the  candidate  into  the 
water,  and  as  faith  was  professed  in  each  of  the  three 
parts  of  the  Apostles'  Creed,  the  candidate  was 
dipped,  making  a  threefold  immersion;  after  which 
the  candidate  was  anointed  by  the  presbyter  with  the 
second  oil,  and  all  went  into  the  church  for  the  Con- 
firmation; the  bishop  laying  on  one  hand,  sometimes 
two  hands,  invoking  the  Holy  Ghost  and  pouring  on 
oil,  sealed  the  newly  baptized  on  the  forehead  and 
gave  the  kiss  of  peace  and  benediction.  The  Eucha- 
rist followed.  The  close  connection  of  Baptism, 
Confirmation,  and  Communion,  even  of  infants,  at  the 
same  time  is  found  in  all  the  Church  Orders  of  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries  and  is  still  the  custom  in 
the  Eastern  Church.  The  Council  of  Elvira,  306  a.d., 
provided  that  those  baptized  by  a  deacon  should  be 
confirmed  later  by  the  bishop.  Baptism  by  deacons  was 
forbidden,  however,  by  the  Apostolic  Constitutions, 
but  was  allowed  to  presbyters,   while  Confirmation 


246  FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

came  to  be  an  essentially  episcopal  act  in  the  West ; 
not  in  the  East  where  presbyters  still  continued  to 
administer  it.  Ordination  in  the  three  orders  con- 
sisted of  a  single  prayer  with  laying  on  of  hands  or 
usually  of  one  hand.  In  the  minor  orders,  including 
deaconesses  and  official  widows,  only  a  special  prayer 
was  used,  without  the  laying  on  of  hands,  until  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions.  The  bishop  was  to  be 
chosen  by  all  the  people.  However,  a  canon  of  Lao- 
dicea  (c.  380  a. d.)  says:  "The  choice  to  any  order  in 
the  priesthood  shall  not  rest  with  the  multitude."  In 
some  cases  one  bishop  acts,  in  others,  three  bishops 
lay  on  hands.  The  custom  of  presbyters  assisting  at 
the  ordination  of  a  presbyter  by  laying  on  of  hands  is 
very  ancient.  The  bishop  acts  alone  in  ordaining  a 
deacon. 

The  anointing  of  the  sick  with  oil,  as  means  of  char- 
ismatic bodily  healing,  is  found  down  to  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. Innocent  I  put  it  in  a  decretal  of  416  a.d.  for 
the  first  time  as  a  sacrament  for  the  dispensation  of 
spiritual  blessing  to  the  sick.  But  Extreme  Unction 
was  not  regarded  universally  as  one  of  the  regular 
Sacraments  of  the  Church  until  the  twelfth  century. 
Although  the  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist  was  not  a  sub- 
ject of  theological  controversy  or  of  ecclesiastical 
action  until  the  time  of  Paschasius  Radbertus  in  the 
ninth  century,  elements  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Real 
Presence  are  clearly  found,  and  a  decided  tendency 
toward  the  theory  of  transubstantiation  appears  in 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Chrysostom,  Hilary  of  Poitiers, 


THE  SACRAMENTS  247 

Ambrose  and  Leo  the  Great ;  though  the  change  they 
teach  is  more  dynamic  than  substantial.  The  Nesto- 
rian  Controversy  strongly  influenced  the  Eucharistic 
theories.  The  view  of  this  service  as  a  sacrifice  in 
the  technical  sense  of  the  word  is  not  found  in  any  of 
the  Church  writers  of  the  first  three  centuries  except 
Cyprian,  but  was  now  becoming  more  prominent  and 
was  strengthened  by  the  tendency  toward  transub- 
stantiation. 

The  last  half  of  the  fourth  century  was  the  begin- 
ning of  an  age  of  ritual  activity.  'Liturgy'  means 
in  technical,  ecclesiastical  language,  the  order  and 
administration  of  public  worship, —  particularly  the 
celebration  of  the  Eucharist.  There  were  probably 
no  liturgical  books  in  the  Ante-Nicene  period,  though 
there  were  of  course  liturgical  forms.  In  each  church 
a  fixed  order  of  worship  gradually  developed,  which, 
in  apostolic  congregations,  went  back  to  an  apostolic 
origin,  enlarged  and  altered  as  time  went  on,  but, 
until  the  fourth  century,  perpetuated  only  by  oral  tra- 
dition. For  the  celebration  of  the  Sacraments  be- 
longed to  the  Disciplina  Arcani,  and  was  concealed 
from  Jews,  Pagans,  and  even  from  catechumens. 
But  when  Christianity  was  legalized  in  the  Empire, 
and  the  Church  made  a  public  appeal  to  the  people, 
the  administration  of  the  Sacraments,  and  the  wor- 
ship generally,  became  a  public  act  open  to  all. 
Consequently,  we  find  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies a  number  of  written  liturgies  bearing  in  most 
cases  apostolic  names,   but  rather   as   belonging   to 


248  FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

Apostolic  Churches  than  as  having  an  apostolic  origin. 
They  seem  to  be  based  on  a  common  liturgical  tra- 
dition reaching  back  to  the  earliest  times.  Other- 
wise their  affinity  with  each  other  cannot  be  satis- 
factorily explained.  This  common  type  is  seen  in  the 
earliest  account  which  we  have  of  the  ser\'ice,  in  Jus- 
tin Martyr's  Apology,  152  a.d.  In  its  earliest  complete 
written  form  it  is  found  in  the  eighth  book  of  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions,  probably  about  the  middle  of 
the  fourth  century,  and  called  the  Clementine  Liturgy. 
It  is  confirmed  by  the  last  of  the  lectures  of  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem  to  his  catechumens,  347  a.d.  The  most 
important  orthodox  liturgies  are:  (i)  The  Jerusalem 
Liturgy,  ascribed  to  St.  James.  (2)  The  Alex- 
andrian Liturgy,  to  St.  Mark;  probably  compiled  by 
Cyril  of  Alexandria,  d.  444  a.d.  (3)  The  Byzantine 
or  Constantinopolitan,  to  Basil  the  Great  and  Chry- 
sostom.  (4)  Milan  or  Ambrosian.  An  Oriental  form 
adopted  in  the  Galilean  and  Mozarabic  Liturgies. 
(5)  The  Roman,  seen  in  the  Sacramentaries  of  Leo, 
Gelasius  and  Gregory. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Maclean,  A.  J. — Recent  Discoveries,    pp.  5-37  ;  59-72. 
Harnack,  A. — History  of  Dogma.     IV,  pp.  268-303. 
Brightman. — Liturgies  :  Eastern  and  Western. 
Brett. — Collection  of  the  Principal  Liturgies.     Lond.,  1838. 
Neale,  J.  M. — Tetralogia  Liturgica.     Lond.,  1859. 
Palmer,  W. — Origines  Liturgicce.    2  vols.    Lond.,  1845. 


WORSHIP;  RITES  AND  CEREMONIES        249 

§13.    Worship;  Rites  and  Ceremonies;  Ser- 
vices AND  Liturgies 

Until  the  last  quarter  of  the  fourth  century,  except 
perhaps  in  one  or  two  places,  the  Eucharist  and  its 
vigil  were  the  only  regular  public  services;  and  the 
Eucharist  was  not  celebrated  daily  until  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. Even  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  daily 
services  were  by  no  means  universal,  and  were  not 
introduced  at  Rome  until  well  on  in  the  fifth  century. 
Daily  prayers  were  held  for  the  presbyters  and  for 
the  official  widows ;  and  the  laity  had  private  prayers 
at  various  hours  of  the  day, —  on  rising,  and  at  the 
third,  sixth  and  ninth  hours,  to  which  were  added 
sunset  and  midnight.  The  full  development  of  daily 
services  is  to  be  traced  to  the  rise  of  religious  com- 
munities at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  These 
services  consisted  of  Prayers,  Psalms,  Hymns,  Canti- 
cles (Nunc  Dimittis  and  Benedictus)  with  Responses. 
There  were  no  lections  from  the  Bible  except  at  the 
Eucharist.  The  regular  division  of  the  Psalter  dates 
from  about  385  a.d.  The  earliest  arrangement  pro- 
vided for  the  whole  course  of  the  Psalms  once  in  three 
days ;  later,  once  a  week.  Vigils  were  services  kept 
up  though  the  night ;  usually  before  Epiphany,  Good 
Friday,  Easter-even,  Easter  and  Pentecost.  It  is  to 
be  noted  that  according  to  Eastern  reckoning  the 
day  began  with  sunset,  and  the  evening  service  of  a 
Sunday  or  festival  took  place  on  what  we  should  call 
the  evening  before.  There  was  from  early  times  a 
19 


250   FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

symbolical  or  ceremonial  use  of  lights,  but  they  were 
not  confined  to  the  Eucharist.  It  is  probable  that 
the  whole  or  the  greater  part  of  the  service  was 
sung;  but  there  is  no  trace  of  instrumental  music  until 
a  much  later  date,  although  choirs  of  trained  singers 
came  early  into  use,  antiphonal  chanting  by  two 
choirs  being  introduced  at  Antioch  about  350  a.d. 
The  Litany,  a  form  of  alternative  prayer  in  which 
the  people  respond  to  each  clause  by  the  repetition  of 
a  short  and  expressive  formula,  dates  from  early  times, 
though  originally  confined  to  the  Eucharist.  Later  it 
was  used  on  the  occasion  of  penitential  supplications 
and  processions,  probably  instituted  by  Liberius  of 
Rome,  352-366  A.D.,  on  the  three  Rogation  Days 
before  Ascension  Day,  and  revived  by  Mamertus, 
Bishop  of  Vienne,  470  a.d. 

Kneeling  was  the  usual  posture  in  prayer,  except 
on  Sundays  and  between  Easter  and  Pentecost,  when 
the  people  stood.  The  sign  of  the  cross,  the  kiss  of 
peace  and  washing  of  hands  were  in  general  use. 
Blessing  the  water  dates  from  the  last  part  of  the 
fourth  century,  though  holy  water  was  much  later. 
Incense  dates  from  the  fourth  century.  The  date  of 
the  origin  of  vestments  is  not  known.  They  naturally 
took  on  greater  richness  and  splendor  in  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries  (cf.  Ambrose  and  the  Church  of 
Milan).  Constantine  gave  to  the  Bishop  of  Jerusalem 
a  splendid  stole  wrought  with  gold  for  use  at  bap- 
tisms. Vestments  were  derived  from  dress  once 
general   among  the  upper    classes    of   the    Empire, 


SA/A'TS,  RELICS  AND  IMAGES  251 

though  always  white.  The  long  tunic  was  called  ec- 
clesiastically the  'alb,*  and  worn  with  a  girdle.  The 
toga  or  upper  garment  was  called  the  'chasuble'  or 
'planeta.'  The  orarium  or  stole  was  worn  over  the 
left  shoulder  by  the  deacon,  and  over  both  shoulders 
by  the  presbyter;  the  maniple,  a  similar  short  strip, 
over  the  wrist.  The  dalmatic  was  worn  by  the 
bishop,  who  also  wore  a  special  ring  and  carried  a 
crozier.  The  pallium,  at  first  of  linen,  later  of  wool, 
was  worn  by  the  archbishop. 

In  the  fourth  century  preaching  was  still  regarded 
as  a  special  function  of  the  bishop,  but  not  to  the 
entire  exclusion  of  the  presbyters.  No  layman,  not 
even  a  monk,  was  permitted  to  preach  in  a  church. 
Preaching  was  frequent  in  the  great  town  churches 
but  rarer  in  the  villages. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Maclean,  J.  A. — Recent  Discoveries,    pp.  87-116. 
Marriott,  W.  B. — Vestiarium  Christianum.     Lond.,  1868. 
Duchesne,  L. — Christian  Worship.     Trans.     Lond.,  1903. 

§14.  Saints,  Relics  and  Images 

The  veneration  of  martyrs  and  of  saints  was  early 
paid  to  their  memory.  Worship  was  held  at  their 
graves,  and  chapels  built  for  their  remains  and  for 
this  worship.  Prayers  were  said  for  them,  but  (as 
interpreted  by  Cyril  of  Jerusalem)  in  order  that 
through  their  intercessions  God  might  receive  our 
prayers.  Augustine,  however,  declared  it  an  insult 
to  pray  for  them  when  we  needed  their  prayers  for 


252   FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

ourselves.  Thus  they  came  to  be  regarded  as 
heavenly  powers,  protecting  the  faithful  and  hearing 
their  prayers.  So  Ambrose  and  Jerome  and  the  three 
Cappadocians  taught.  This  veneration  was  soon  ex- 
tended to  their  earthly  remains  or  relics,  that  is, 
bones,  clothing,  furniture  or  instruments  of  their 
martyrdom.  At  the  close  of  the  fourth  century  we 
begin  to  hear  of  the  very  cross  on  which  Christ  was 
crucified,  the  nails,  etc.,  with  the  legend  of  the  dis- 
covery by  the  Empress  Helena,  Constantine's  mother, 
326  A.D.^  Later  the  crown  of  thorns  (preserved  in 
Paris)  and  the  coat  (at  Treves).  Beginning  in  a 
natural  religious  feeling  of  reverence  and  gratitude, 
it  soon  led  to  superstition  and  idolatry.  The  first 
clear  trace  of  the  veneration  of  relics  is  seen  in 
Antioch,  in  the  second  century,  in  connection  with 
the  bones  of  the  martyr-bishop  Ignatius,  and  of 
Polycarp  in  Smyrna.  By  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century  the  superstitious  worship  is  evident.  Re- 
mains were  dug  up  and  sold  by  wandering  monks,  the 
trade  leading  to  many  frauds  and  counterfeits ;  but  the 
genuine  could  be  discovered,  it  was  believed,  by  the 
miracles  they  wrought.  The  exhuming  of  remains 
was  forbidden  by  Theodosius  in  386,  and  by  several 
councils,  but  without  success. 

Anthony  and  Athanasius   protested   against   relic 
worship,  but  opposition  soon  ceased  except  on  the  part 


^Stanley. —  Eastern  Church,    pp.  211.     D.  C.  B.     Vol.  II.  p. 
882,  b. 


SAINTS,  RELICS  AND  IMAGES  253 

of  heretics.  The  feasts  of  martyrs  became  popular 
festivals,  with  eucharists  and  banquets.  By  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century  the  feast  of  All  Saints  was 
celebrated  in  the  Greek  Church  on  the  Octave  of 
Pentecost,  and  was  fixed  in  the  West  on  November 
I,  by  Gregory  III,  731  a.d.  High  above  the  venera- 
tion of  the  saints  rose  that  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
though  the  martyrs  came  first  in  the  development  of 
saint-worship.  Her  absolute  sinlessness  and  per- 
petual virginity  were  not  yet  matters  of  faith.  Her 
adoration  (which  does  not  appear  to  any  great  extent 
before  the  fifth  century)  was  enhanced  by  the  mystical 
view  of  the  Incarnation  as  the  deification  of  hu- 
manity. Even  before  the  time  of  Athanasius  the 
Virgin  Mary  had  been  designated  the  mother  of  God 
(Theotokos),  but  in  the  Nestorian  Controversy  this 
became  the  popular  name  for  her,  and  churches  were 
dedicated  to  her.  From  the  adoration  of  saints  arose 
naturally  a  certain  adoration  of  angels.  The  Synod 
of  Laodicea  protested  against  this;  yet  Origen  com- 
mended the  invocation  of  angels,  and  Ambrose  repre- 
sented it  as  a  duty.  Holy  places,  consecrated  to  the 
life  of  our  Lord  and  of  the  early  saints,  were  made 
the  objects  of  pilgrimages.  The  Empress  Helena  set 
the  example  by  her  visit  to  the  Holy  Land,  326  a.d. 
The  use  of  pictures  and  images  in  worship  at  this 
early  stage  belongs  rather  to  the  subject  of  worship 
than  of  art.  The  earliest  symbol  or  image  was 
naturally  the  cross ;  it  was  made  of  wood  in  the  second 
and  third  centuries,  later  of  silver  and  gold  adorned 


254   FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

with  pearls  and  precious  stones.  Chrysostom  says 
the  cross  is  found  everywhere.  Nilus,  d.  450,  one  of 
the  fathers  of  monasticism,  says  a  cross  might  be 
placed  at  the  east  end  of  the  church,  and  scenes  from 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  painted  on  the  side 
walls.  These  pictures  from  the  time  of  Constantine 
were  usually  made  in  mosaic.  The  earliest  images  of 
Jesus  were  Gnostic.  Two  have  been  found  dating 
about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century;  one  (a  statue 
of  the  Good  Shepherd),  preserved  in  the  Vatican,  and 
the  other  on  the  sarcophagus  of  Junius  Bassus,  d.  359. 
Eusebius  denounced  pictures,  even  of  the  Apostles; 
but  Basil  the  Great,  before  the  end  of  the  century, 
acknowledged  them ;  showing  what  a  change  had 
taken  place  during  the  fourth  century.  Images  of 
the  Virgin  are  found  earlier,  on  the  reliefs  of  the  sar- 
cophagi, where  she  is  represented  veiled.  Pictures  of 
the  Apostles,  especially  of  St.  Peter  and  St,  Paul,  are 
found  in  the  fourth  century.  The  earliest  references 
are  in  a  description  by  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  d.  395. 
Paulinus  of  Nola,  d.  431,  describes  vividly  the  scenes 
from  the  Old  Testament  painted  on  the  walls  of  his 
church  of  St.  Felix  in  Nola,  near  Mt.  Vesuvius. 

Already,  in  the  early  part  of  the  fifth  century, 
Augustine  complained  of  the  superstitious  reverence 
and  undue  honor  paid  to  pictures  and  images.  The 
development  from  the  cross  to  the  crucifixion  took 
place  mostly  in  this  period  in  four  stages:  (i)  The 
simple  cross;  (2)  Cross  with  lamb  at  the  foot  of 
it  (early  fifth  century);   (3)  Christ  clothed,  on  the 


CHRISTIAN  LIFE  AND  DISCIPLINE  255 

cross,  not  nailed  to  it  —  at  first  only  the  head  and 
shoulders  (fifth  century);  (4)  Christ  nailed  to  the 
cross,  but  alive  with  open  eyes  (sixth  century).  The 
dead  Christ  on  the  cross  does  not  appear  until  the 
tenth  or  eleventh  centuries.  Consecrated  gifts  ap- 
peared in  the  churches  from  the  time  of  Constantine 
and  became  numerous  by  his  example.  Memorials  of 
cures  appeared  in  the  fifth  century  in  the  form  of  feet 
and  hands,  etc.,  of  gold  and  silver. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Appell. — Christ  in  Mosaic  Pictures. 

Woltmann  and  Woermann. — History  of  Painting.  2  vols. 
Lond.,  1886. 

Lindsay. — Christian  Art. 

Vaughn,  H. — Life  of  the  Blessed  Paulinus.     Lond.,  1S54. 

Bigg,  Charles. — Wayside  Sketches  in  Ecclesiastical  History, 
pp.  27-56.     N.  Y.,  1906. 

Milman. — History  of  Christianity.     Bk.  IV,  ch.  iv. 

§15.    Christian  Life  and  Discipline 

We  note  a  twofold  aspect  of  morality  after  the 
Church  became  imperial  and  the  State  officially 
Christian.  Much  of  the  earnestness,  power  and 
purity  of  the  Christian  life  was  lost.  The  Church 
became  more  assimilated  to  the  world.  Church  dis- 
cipline  grew  more   lax;  moral   deterioration  set  in. 

The  prevalence  of  dogmatic  disputes  and  the  polit- 
ical influences  at  work  tended  to  produce  ambition, 
greed  and  bitterness  among  the  clergy,  and  hypoc- 
risy, pride  and  bigotry  among  the  laity;  not  to  men- 
tion the  grosser  sins  incident  to  the  influence  of  court 


256  FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

life  and  the  savagery  resulting  from  the  raids  of  the 
barbarians.  Donatism,  Priscillianism  and  monasti- 
cism  were,  each  in  its  way,  a  protest  against  the  grow- 
ing laxity  of  the  Church  during  this  period.  On  the 
other  hand,  Christianity  acted  as  a  leaven  in  society, 
strengthening  the  administration  of  justice,  raising 
the  standards,  ennobling  the  motives  and  increas- 
ing the  enthusiasm  of  life.  As  shown  in  B.  I,  §15, 
the  precepts  of  Christian  morality  tended  to  become 
a  code  of  positive  law.  The  needs  of  humanity  and 
the  rights  of  man  were  recognized ;  the  condition  of 
slaves  and  captives'was  ameliorated ;  gladiatorial  shows 
and^  immoral  exhibitions  were  abolished;  the  sanctity 
of  marriage  was  insisted  upon;  the  elevation  of  woman 
secured ;  benevolent  institutions  and  care  for  the  poor, 
sick  and  aged,  children,  criminals  and  unfortunate  was 
provided,  and  the  inveterate  vices  of  ancient  pagan- 
ism were  condemned  and  discredited.  Second  mar- 
riages were  regarded  with  disapproval  even  for  a 
widow  or  widower.  In  the  fourth  century  innocent 
spouses,  legally  divorced  for  adultery,  were  still 
allowed  to  remarry,  though  (as  in  all  cases  of  second 
marriage)  they  were  advised  against  it.  But  in  the 
fifth  century,  by  the  Synod  of  Mileve,  416  a.d.,  and 
by  Innocent  I,  divorced  persons,  even  though  inno- 
cent, were  for  the  first  time  forbidden  to  remarry. 
Indeed  there  was  a  strong  tendency  to  regard  mar- 
riage as  a  necessary  evil  suited  only  to  the  great 
mass  of  mankind  who  could  not  rise  to  the  higher  per- 
fection.   Thus  the  Church's  estimate  of  the  moral  life 


CHRISTIAN  LIFE  AND  DISCIPLINE  257 

was  shaped  by  the  same  theories  that  made  monasti- 
cism  appear  as  Christian  perfection  and  the  priest- 
hood as  in  itself  a  representative  of  the  higher  reli- 
gious morality.  Jovinian,  a  monk,  d.  406  a.d.,  whom 
Neander  likens  to  Luther,  combated  these  notions  of 
double  morality,  in  which  the  work-righteousness  of 
the  Church  culminated;  but  he  was  bitterly  opposed 
by  Jerome  and  all  who  were  devoted  to  the  monastic 
ideal,  and  was  condemned  by  Ambrose  and  Siricius. 
Helvidius,  Vigilantius  and  Aerius,  also  opposed  this 
monastic  tendency.  Of  course  the  social  misery  and 
unrest,  the  storms  and  threatening  dangers  of  the 
barbarians  had  much  to  do  with  this  disposition  to 
forsake  the  world.  As  for  the  ordinary  Christian,  his 
defects  might  be  supplemented  in  two  ways :  by  the 
merit  of  orthodoxy;  and  by  that  of  churchly  deeds, — 
prayers,  fasting  and  almsgiving.  Church  discipline 
had  two  forms:  the  ban,  or  greater  excommunication, 
for  notorious  sins  (exclusion  from  the  Church,  and, 
later,  prohibition  of  all  intercourse  in  civil  life);  the 
lesser  excommunication,  for  slighter  ecclesiastical 
offences,  excluded  from  the  Lord's  Supper  and  the 
general  Church  prayer.  For  restoration,  exercises 
of  penance  were  required.  Augustine  distinguishes 
three  kinds  of  penance:  (i)  Of  catechumens,  where 
all  previous  sins  are  washed  away  in  baptism;  (2) 
Of  believers,  whose  venial  sins,  due  to  the  universal 
sinfulness  of  human  nature,  obtain  forgiveness  by 
daily  prayer;  (3)  Penance  of  those  who  commit  the 
gravest  sins,  punished  by  excommunication  and  re- 


258   FINAL  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NICENE  FAITH 

mitted  after  public  and  formal  penance.  Heresy  was 
regarded  as  the  most  grievous  and  unpardonable  sin, 
and,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Priscillians,  was  even  pun- 
ished by  the  State  with  death ;  but  with  the  increas- 
ing severity  against  heretics  strictness  in  regard  to 
moral  offences  diminished.  In  the  new  world-Church, 
including  more  or  less  the  whole  population,  the 
carrying  out  of  this  procedure  became  increasingly 
difficult. 

A  change  had  taken  place  from  the  original  purpose 
of  ecclesiastical  penance, —  of  preserving  the  commun- 
ity from  public  scandal, —  and  it  became  a  means  for 
the  improvement  of  members,  and  a  standard  of  eccle- 
siastical penalties  was  fixed.  This  effected  several 
changes  from  earlier  usage:  (i)  Only  one  repentance 
had  been  allowed,  but  more  than  one  must  now  be 
permitted.  (2)  The  publicity  of  the  penance,  neces- 
sary to  the  original  purpose,  now  became  an  obstacle 
in  the  way.  Immediately  after  the  Decian  persecu- 
tion, when  large  numbers  of  the  lapsed  sought  return 
to  the  Church,  a  discreet  presbyter  was  chosen  to 
arrange  the  penance  after  a  private  hearing.  This  cus- 
tom became  general,  and  penitentiary  presbyters  were 
chosen  to  avoid  the  scandals  of  a  public  confession. 
There  was  no  obligation  of  confession,  but  an  oppor- 
tunity was  afforded.  This  institution  was  abolished  by 
Nectarius  of  Constantinople,  391  a.d.,  in  consequence 
of  a  scandal  there,  and  many  bishops  followed  his  exam- 
ple, and  the  matter  of  communicating  was  left  to  each 
one's  conscience;  though  a  penitentiary   priest  was 


CHRISTIAN  LIFE  AND  DISCIPLINE  259 

appointed   in  Rome   in   the   latter   part  of  the  fifth 
century. 

Leo  the  Great  condemned  the  custom  of  having 
penitents  recite  aloud  in  the  church  a  complete  list 
of  their  sins,  and  declared  private  confession  to  the 
priest  to  be  sufficient.  Public  confession  became 
rare  after  this.  Almsgiving  or  bequests  to  the 
Church  came  to  be  recognized  as  a  means  of  atoning 
for  sin.     Offerings  were  made  also  for  the  departed. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

Writings  of  Ambrose,  Jerome,  Chrysostom  and  Augustine. 
Milman. — History  of  Christianity.     Bk.  IV,  Chapter  I. 
Lecky,  W.  H.  H. — History  of  European  Morals. 
Ozanam. — History  of  Civilization  in  the  Fifth  Century. 
Dill,  S. — The  Last  Century  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
Bright,  Wm. — Waymarks.     pp.  243-278. 
Burkhardt. — Slavery  in  the  Roman  Empire. 


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